Evaluation of the Flood Defense Policy Making Process in Indonesia

Transcription

1 Evaluation of the Flood Defense Policy Making Process in Indonesia The Case of the Eastern Flood Canal, Jakarta, Indonesia Imelda Rinawaty Simanjuntak Master of Science Program: Engineering and Policy Analysis

2 Master Thesis Report Evaluation of the Flood Defense Policy Making Process in Indonesia The Case of the Eastern Flood Canal, Jakarta, Indonesia Imelda Rinawaty Simanjuntak (St.Nr ) Graduation Committee: Pr. Sybe Schaap, Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management, Policy Analysis Section, TU Delft, (Committee Chair) Dr. ir. Bert Enserink, Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management Policy Analysis Section, TU Delft, (First Supervisor) Dr.Wim Ravesteijn, Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management Technology Dynamics & Sustainable Development Section, TU Delft Ir. Niki Frantzeskaki, Faculty of Social Sciences, Erasmus University Rotterdam & Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management, TU Delft Delft University of Technology Faculty of Technology, Policy Analysis & Management Master of Science Program: Engineering and Policy Analysis August 2010

3 Preface In the period from February up to August 2010 I did my thesis project as part of my master study of the Engineering and Policy Analysis, Master of Science Program at Delft University of Technology. This report is my master thesis project. This thesis would not have been possible without the support of many people. I would like to take the opportunity here to thank the people who have given me encouragement, advice and support and I would like to mention a few names in particular. I want to thank the members of my graduation committee, Sybe Schaap, Bert Enserink, Wim Ravesteijn, Niki Frantzeskaki for assisting me to structure my thought and giving me valuable feedback. I wish to express my gratitude to all interviewees for their time and information, especially Pitoyo Subandrio and Jimmy Pardede for their help during my visit to Jakarta. Special thanks to Wini and Andri for all discussions that brought many ideas and enlightenment to my thesis. I am most grateful to my beloved family and my parents, who have been there all those years with their pray and motivations. To my husband, no word can describe my thankful for your endless love and faith for me. Lastly, I would like to dedicate this study to my beautiful baby, Noa, my strength and my inspiration. Imelda Rinawaty Simanjuntak August 2010 i`

4 Executive Summary The adequate flood control infrastructure in Jakarta is important due to its position in low delta areas. However, even though flood control infrastructure programs in Jakarta have been on the agenda since 1970, most of them have never been implemented due to the political and public resistance. One of the flood control infrastructure programs which its implementation had been delayed for more than 30 years was Eastern Flood Canal. This situation implies the flood problem is still a nightmare to Jakarta until today. Given the aforementioned explanation, this research intends to (i) identify the causes of delay and opposition regarding to the Eastern Flood Canal policy making process and (ii) recommend potential strategy to alleviate the causes of the delay and opposition. Based on our research, we found that the decisive causes of the delay and opposition regarding the policy making process of Eastern Flood Canal are: (i) the limited involvement and support of the critical authorities during the policy making process. This factor leads to the unavailability of resources and legitimacy of the Eastern Flood Canal implementation. (ii) The decision was taken without consulting the stakeholders that were affected by the Eastern Flood canal implementation. This factor leads to the blocking reactions from the stakeholder during the implementation. Considering the aforementioned findings, we recommend that the decision should be made after critical authorities commit and agree to bring their resources forward. The agreement should stipulated legally and declare to public to assure its accountability. Proposing multi added value of flood control infrastructure implementation such as the economic and social benefit can attract the critical actors to involve in policy process. Secondly, the stakeholder involvement outside the boundary of government and listen to their voice during the flood control policy making process should be started to practice in Jakarta to reduce the high opposition during the implementation. The role of the policy entrepreneur (e.g. in this case is Jakarta government) to seize the windows of opportunity is also found as an important factor when gaining support from political parties to implement the Eastern Flood Canal in 2003 (as shown in figure below). ii`

5 Figure 1 Stream Model of Eastern Flood Canal Considering this finding, we recommend to the policy entrepreneur that it is important to have a perceptive eye to sudden event (e.g. aftermaths, political changes, etc) that could create the opportunity to gain the support of the political parties for the realization of a certain policy. However, gaining only the support of the political parties without considering the rationality of the policy and conducting good assessment of the policy could lead to the implementation failure. Therefore, it is very important to carry out actual and detailed impact assessment of the flood control infrastructure policy (e.g. the institutional arrangements for the implementation, social impact, economic impact, environmental impact, benefit of the project implementation,, etc) at the design stage (so as to avoid or at least, eliminate as much as possible the implementation failure). iii`

6 Table of Content Preface...i Executive Summary...ii Table of Content...iv List of Tables...vi List of Figures...vi Part A: Problem description and Background Knowledge...i Chapter 1. Introduction Problem Description Research Objective Social and scientific relevance Structure of the thesis...4 Chapter 2. The research methodology Introduction Research Question Research Framework Conceptual Framework Data gathering method Data processing method Conclusion...12 Chapter 3. Eastern Flood Canal Introduction Physical Characteristic of Eastern Flood Canals General Geographical Profile of the Eastern Flood Canal...16 Chapter 4. Public administration changes in Indonesia and water sector in Jakarta Introduction Institutional structure of Indonesia and water sector of Jakarta Deconcentrated government prior to the year Decentralization, the establishment Law no 22/ The administrative changes concerning the water sector in Jakarta Master Plans Development of the Eastern Flood Canal Water management Institutions and Roles in Jakarta before and after decentralization Analyzing the positions of the actors Conclusion...35 Chapter 5. The Round Model of the policy making process of the Eastern Flood Canal (study period: )...37 iv`

7 5.1 Introduction Source of Information Policy Making Process Round Overview of the policy process rounds of Eastern Flood Canal Decision Rounds during the centralization period (prior to 1999) First Round (1970s) Second Round ( s) Third Round ( ) Fourth Round ( ) Fifth Round (1996) Sixth Round (1997) Decision rounds after decentralization Seventh Round (1999) Eighth Round (1999) Ninth Round (1999) Tenth Round (2002) Analysis of the policy process rounds of the Eastern Flood Canal Analysis of decision process of the Eastern Flood Canal using the Stream model Conclusion of Chapter Part C: Conclusion and Recommendation...20 Chapter 7 Concluding Remarks Introduction Main findings...76 Chapter 8 Reflection Reflect to the research Reflect to the models used Recommendation for Future Research...84 References...86 Part D: Appendix...89 v`

8 List of Tables Table 1 Description of Areas of the Eastern Flood Canal...17 Table 2 Percentage of Land Use by Villages in the area of the Eastern Flood Canal Table 3 Master Plan Development of the Eastern Flood Canal...23 Table 4 The Actor Analysis prior to the decentralization...30 Table 5 Classification of interdependencies between the actors related to the implementation of the Eastern Flood Canal, Jakarta, Indonesia prior to the decentralization...31 Table 6 The Actor Analysis after the decentralization...33 Table 7 Classification of interdepencies between the actors related to the implementation of the Eastern Flood Canal, Jakarta, Indonesia after the decentralization...34 Table 8 Overview table for classification of interdependencies during centralization period...77 Table 9 Overview table for classification of interdependencies after decentralization...77 List of Figures Figure 1 Stream Model of Eastern Flood Canal... iii Figure 2 Research Framework...7 Figure 3 Conceptual Framework to analyze the delay of the Eastern Flood Canal Implementation...7 Figure 4 Debit of Eastern Flood Canal, (PT Virama Karya and Associates, 2003)...16 Figure 5 Macro Context of Eastern Flood Canal Policy Process...25 Figure 6 Administrative Bodies of Flood Control Management of Jakarta (Source: Adapted from Master Plan, JICA 1997)...27 Figure 7 Administrative bodies of water sector after decentralization...29 Figure 8 Two distinct phase in the macro context of the Eastern Flood Canal policy making process...38 Figure 9 Overview of the different rounds that comprise the policy process of the Eastern Flood Canal, Jakarta, Indonesia...39 Figure 10 Implementation Round of the Eastern Flood Canal...40 Figure 11 The Stream Model of the Eastern Flood Canal, Jakarta, Indonesia...63 Figure 12 Two distinct phase of the Eastern Flood Canal Policy Making Process...76 vi`

9 Part A: Problem description and Background Knowledge

10 Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1 Problem Description Jakarta is a city which is located in low delta areas and it suffers to flood attacks annually. Of the ha area of Jakarta, about half is situated at flood plain(s). According to the current data of the Jakarta Public Works Agency, there are about 78 areas of Jakarta that are prone to flooding ( Flood problem is still a nightmare to Jakarta until today. In fact, the magnitudes of floods are amplifying on the last decade (e.g. flood events on 1996, 2002 and 2007) and the impacts have been affecting widespread areas and inducing huge economic and social damages to the city (NEDECO 2002, Bappenas 2007). Given this situation, the flood control management is required to protect Jakarta from flooding in the future. According to prior studies, one factor contributing to the worsening of the floods in Jakarta is inadequate flood control infrastructures (Steinberg, 2007). Flood control infrastructure programs have been on the government agenda since However, most of them have never been implemented due to the political and public resistance. One of the flood control infrastructure programs which its implementation had been delayed for more than 30 years was the Eastern Flood Canal. The Eastern Flood Canal project plan was first presented in the Master Plan of Drainage System and Flood Control for Jakarta in The Master Plan 1973 was constructed by Ministry of Public Works collaborated with the Dutch Government. Even though the Eastern Flood Canal design was finished on 1973 and its construction planned to be completed before 1980s (NEDECO, 1973), in fact the implementation of the project was just realized on Many contradictive opinions appear regarding the delay of the Eastern Flood Canal implementation. Through media, government claimed that the difficulty on land acquisition process was the factor holding up the implementation of the Eastern Flood Canal. On the other hand, some of research documents charged that the Jakarta s government has a significant role to the delay of the canal implementation (Caljouw, et.al 2004, Steinberg, 2007). According to Caljouw, et. al (2004) the budget allocation which was not used to its purpose was the factor contributing to the not implementing the Eastern Flood Canal in the past. Steinberg (2007) claimed that the delay of 1`

11 Eastern Flood Canal implementation was due to the difficulty in attracting investors that leaded to the inadequate budget for its implementation. The first assumption of our research is that the delay of the Eastern Flood Canal is beyond the budget limitation. In fact, many infrastructure projects in Indonesia which required high budget were implemented on the past. Therefore, according to us, it is important to find the decisive causes of why the Eastern Flood Canal policy making process was confronted with lengthy time. Give the aforementioned explanation, the research intends to give an answer to the following research question: What are the decisive causes of the delays and opposition faced by the Jakarta s city government regarding the Eastern Flood Canal implementation? There are three reasons why we choose the Eastern Flood Canal as the case study: (i) The implementation of the Eastern Flood Canal has been delayed for more than 30 years and the Provincial Government wants to learn the root causes of the implementation delay from this case (ii) Issues such as lack of budget have been indicated in prior studies, none of them put attention to evaluate the decisive causes of those issues, (iii) The Eastern Flood Canal was finally implemented on 2003, and according to us it is important to investigate why finally the Eastern Flood Canal was considered as appropriate solution where in the past it was less considered. The causes of delay and opposition are searched in two areas: (i) the transition of institutional structure in Indonesia from centralization to decentralization, and (ii) the way of that decision making process of the Eastern Flood Canal was conducted. The evaluation of the institutional structure and its changes and the policy making process of Eastern Flood Canal will indicate the issues that cause the delay and oppositions. In addition to that, the research will also give an analysis of the reasons behind the Eastern Flood Canal got attention from government in 2002 and considered as an appropriate solution for dealing with the flooding problems in Jakarta. Understanding why the Eastern Flood Canal was eventually implemented might help us to find a strategy on how to gain supports for the realization of flood control infrastructure project in the future. 2`

12 1.2 Research Objective The research objective is the evaluation of the Eastern Flood Canal policy making process. The research outcomes include: (i) the identification of the decisive causes of delay and opposition regarding the Eastern Flood Canal implementation, (ii) the reason behind why the Eastern Flood Canal got attention from the government in 2002 and considered as appropriate solution for dealing with the flooding problems in Jakarta and (iii) the recommendation the potential strategy to alleviate the causes so as to improve the flood defense policy implementation process in Jakarta in the future. 1.3 Social and scientific relevance Flood control management is very important function especially for Jakarta that is located in low lying delta. Flooding always poses negative impacts not only to the economy of the region but also to human life. Additionally, due to climate change and to uncontrolled human activities, extreme flooding becomes unpredictable while flood control infrastructure in Jakarta is obviously still far from adequate. The need for flood infrastructure expansion in the future is still considered important by the government so as to reduce and mitigate the impacts of flooding in the future. Some of flood control infrastructure programs were even unimplemented yet until today due to political and public resistance. The resistances cause a long delay of the implementation of the project related to flood control infrastructure. The delay bears a fact that impact of floods becomes worsen every year because the solution is often one behind step from the problem. Therefore, it is very important to minimize the resistances and the long delay of the flood control policy making process so as to mitigate the impact of the worsening floods in Jakarta in the future. From a scientific point of view it is interesting to find the decisive causes of the failure and delay when implementing flood defense policy in Jakarta. Even though some of prior studies have introduced that the lack of budget was factor impeding the Eastern Flood Canal Implementation but none of the research put attention to find the decisive causes of this budget issue. This research intends to give the answer for the issue. By having more research on policy making processes especially in facing public and political resistance combined with involving stakeholder, the research findings may aid the Jakarta s government to learn from the 3`

13 successes and the mistakes that have been already made and to improve the policy making process of the flood control infrastructure in the future. 1.4 Structure of the thesis In order to present the chapters of this report in a concise way, the chapters of thesis are divided to three main parts: Part A consists of three chapters (Chapter 1, 2 and 3) includes the introductory chapter of the thesis, research methodology and background information related to Eastern Flood Canal. More particularly, Chapter 1 includes the problem description, research objective and research questions. Chapter 2 presents the research methodology (data collection and data processing method) and the theoretical background used. In chapter 3 the general information of the Eastern Flood Canal characteristic like the physical characteristic, its functions and locations and problems are given. Part B consists of three chapters (Chapter 4, 5 and 6) presents the answers to the three research sub-questions. More particularly, chapter 4 present the evaluation and answers to the first research sub-question How does the institutional structure can changes influence the policy making process of Eastern Flood Canal? Chapter 5 presents the evaluation and answers to the second research sub-question How does the policy making process concerning Eastern Flood Canal affect its implementation?. Chapter 6 presents the evaluation outcomes and answers to the third sub question What are the potential strategies to alleviate the causes of the delay and opposition regarding flood defense policy implementation in Jakarta? Part C concludes the research by presenting the concluding remarks given in Chapter 7 and the reflection on the research given in Chapter 8. More particularly, chapter seven includes conclusions and recommendations for Local Jakarta Government to improve the success of flood defense implementation and chapter eight reflects on the choices that are made during the research as well as outlines issues for future investigation. The fourth part of the thesis (part D) consists of the Appendices that complement the developed chapters not only with backing information but also present the designed observation approach. Appendix A provides detailed information on the Design Methodology developed for conducting the interviews. The different types of questionnaires designed are found in Appendix A. Appendix B includes the interview reports, and the respective 4`

14 derivation of information that backs the observation discussions of Chapters 4, 5, and 6. Appendix C presents the brief description of the content of Each Master Plans concerning Flood Control and Drainage System in Jakarta. 5`

15 Chapter 2. The research methodology 2.1 Introduction The goal of this chapter is to outline the research space and the research methodology that is used to conduct the research study. Following the explanatory trace of the second chapter, the key research question and its subquestions are given in section 2.2. Te research framework to answer the research question and sub questions is presented in section 2.3. The conceptual framework to identify factors which may be associated with the delay of Eastern Flood Canal policy making process in Jakarta is presented in section 2.4. On the next section (section 2.5) the methodology to collect the data is given. The data collection method is combination of desk research and semi structured interview. The Actor Analysis, the Round model and the Stream model are the approaches to process the data in this research. The general description about the Actor analysis, Round model and Stream model are presented in section 2.6. The last part of the chapter is the conclusion (section 2.8). 2.2 Research Question The flood defense history in Jakarta emphasizes the fact that most of the flood control programs in Jakarta have not been implemented successfully. One of the programs that had been delayed for more than 30 years was the Eastern Flood Canal. The local government of Jakarta wants to learn from the Eastern Flood Canal experience and more specifically it is interested in the causes of the delay and opposition, aiming at improving the process the flood defense policy making process in the future. The main research question of the present thesis is What are the causes of the delays and opposition faced by Jakarta regarding the Eastern Flood Canal implementation? The research question has the following sub questions: 1. How does the institutional structure and change affect the policy making process of the Eastern Flood Canal? 2. How does policy making process of Eastern Flood Canal affected its implementation? 3. What are the potential strategies to alleviate the causes of the delay and opposition regarding flood defense policy implementation? 2.3 Research Framework In order to answer the research questions, the following research framework will be used: 6`

16 Figure 2 Research Framework 2.4 Conceptual Framework For the research question to be answered, a framework has been developed that identify factors which may be associated with the delay of the Eastern Flood Canal policy implementation in Jakarta. These factors and their hypothesized relationship with the implementation delay of the Eastern Flood Canal are derived from legal documents about the Eastern Flood Canal, public policy making and institutional analysis literature relating to public administration, water or other natural resource management. Figure 3 Conceptual Framework to analyze the delay of the Eastern Flood Canal Implementation 7`

17 Eastern Flood Canal is a complex system which its realization depends on multi-actor support. We start with an assumption that the long delay of the Eastern Flood Canal implementation may be derived from the lack of support from the critical actors during the decision making process. Therefore, our analysis is started with identifying the actors affected by the Eastern Flood Canal implementation. To identify and mapping out the position of actors, we first need to understand the institutional structure of public administration generally and water sector of Jakarta particularly. Therefore, as shown in Figure 2, to answer the main research question the first aspect that is going to be investigated is related to the institutional structure and transition of public administration and water sector of Jakarta As stated in the introductory chapter, the design process of the Eastern Flood Canal lasted for more than 30 years and the Eastern Flood Canal was finally implemented in At some stage in the process of the Eastern Flood Canal design, the transition from centralization to decentralization of administration system in Indonesia took place in This transition brought changes in the styles and structure of public administrative system in Indonesia generally, and in the water sector in particularly (SMERU 2001, Bhat., et. al 2005, Bhat. and Molinga, 2009). The centralization structure on the past and the institutional transition from centralization to decentralization will inevitably bring changes of the position or power of several actors affected by the (implementation of the) Eastern Flood Canal project. Understanding these aspects will help us to identify the critical actors and indicate their behavior during the policy making process. It is important to investigate actor s attributes (such as resources and behavior) because without their support the realization of a certain policy will be impossible. The second aspect that is going to investigate in this thesis research is the policy making process of the Eastern Flood Canal. After we indicate the behaviour and perception of actors based on their position, then we will affirm our indications by thoroughly looking the policy process of Eastern Flood Canal. To ease us in observing and analyzing the way of the policy process conducted, we need to structure the policy process from `

18 The round model (Teisman, 2000, Enserink. B, et. al 2009) is used to structure the policy processes. By structuring the policy process in round, we can observe why series of rounds were never continued to the implementation stages. We will affirm our findings about the actors position due to institutional structure and its changes whether or not have influence on the duration of the policy making process of Eastern Flood Canal. In addition to first and second aspect, the issue about why after a long time the Eastern Flood Canal finally got attention by the Government as an appropriate solution to control flood in the eastern part of Jakarta is investigated. As introduced in Chapter 1, the Eastern Flood Canal after a long delay was finally implemented on 2003 by Central government and Jakarta government. This aspect is investigated using the stream model (Kingdon 1982). Understanding this aspect will help us to indicate a strategy for gaining support for the realization of the flood control infrastructure in the future. 2.6 Data gathering method In order to find the causes of delay and blockade of the eastern canal policy implementation process, the interview will be conducted with authority officials and other stakeholders include NGOs and citizens who are living surrounding canal. The interviews were held during a one month long visit in Jakarta, Indonesia. The semi-structured interviews to authority officials and other stakeholders were conducted with a focus on understanding the formal institutional structure and interactions at district, local and national levels that affect the implementation process of the Eastern Flood Canal and the performance of the Eastern Flood Canal, matters that were closely within the knowledge of the interviewees. The in depth interviews to citizens were conducted to get more insight and to understand the causes (and motivation) of their opposition. The semi-structured interview is chosen as a method because it is flexible; it allows new questions to be brought up during the interview as a result of what the interviewee says. The interviewees include: Representatives of Public Work Department, Directorate of General Water Resources Management BBWSCC (Balai Besar Wilayah Sungai Ciliwung Cisadane) Public Work Agency (Provincial Level) 9`

19 Representative from East Jakarta Municipality Representative from North Jakarta Municipality 5 citizens 2 NGO Representative Land Committee Representative from Public Relation committee of Eastern Flood Canal Public Representative from Land Affairs (East Jakarta Municipality) Representative from land Affairs (North Jakarta Municipality) 2 representative from Villages officials A desk research about the history of the Eastern Flood Canal and the institutional development in Indonesia regarding water management prepared a background paper on the Eastern Flood Canal prior to the visit (field research) in Jakarta, Indonesia. The materials reviewed during the desk research were journal and scientific papers and some legal documents of Jakarta s government (e.g. Master Plans) that provided information about the process of the policy design and implementation. Some legal documents of government (unpublished) concerning flood control management in Jakarta that are used as key references in this master thesis are: NEDECO, 1973, Master Plan for Drainage and Flood Control JICA, 1991 The Study on Urban Drainage and Wastewater Disposal Project in the City of Jakarta Master Plan Study ; JFCAM, 1996, Jakarta Flood Control Advisory Mission by NEDECO JICA, 1997, Study on Comprehensive Water Management Plan in Jabotabek ; JICA, 1997a, Detailed Design for Urban Drainage Project in the City of Jakarta ; Nedeco, 2002, Quick Reconnaissance Study, Flood Jakarta 2002 Bappeda 2003, Penyusunan Rencana Kawasan Banjir Kanal Timur WJEMP 2002, Drainage Management for Jakarta, Strategic Action Program Development (DKI 3-9) JFM 2007, Dutch assistance with non-structural measures Jakarta Flood Management Momerandum of Understanding (Nota Kesepakatan) 2002, Menteri Pemukiman dan Prasana Wilayah dengan Gubernur DKI Jakarta 10`

20 The findings from the desk research are further verified and revised by the field research that includes the interviews of stakeholders. The following analysis of the Eastern Flood Canal case is therefore based on combination of sources, documentary materials on Indonesia and the Eastern Flood Canal and the interviews conducted during the site visit. The findings therefore emerge from a composite of data collected (desk research and interview) and analysis result. 2.7 Data processing method An Actor analysis, the Round model and the Stream model are used as methods to process the data in this thesis. Brief information about the three methods are given in this section. Actor Analysis To categorize the critical actors concerning the Eastern Flood Canal implementation, we need to identify the resources and interest of each actors affecting by the realization of Eastern Flood Canal. We find that the actor analysis (Enserink, et. al, 2009) is a compatible method for this step. Actor analysis is a tool that can help us to list important actors related to certain problems and to map out the dependency between those actors. The Round Model The round model is applied because we assume that during the policy process of the Eastern Flood Canal, interaction between different actors should took place; given that the implementation of the Eastern Flood Canal depends on the cooperation of multiple actors. Since we want to be more focus on the influence of actors interaction in the series policy making process, we found that the round model is the compatible method. The round model assumes that several actors introduce combination of problems and solutions, and create progress through interaction (Teisman 2000). By structuring the policy making process of Eastern Flood Canal in round, we can observe whether or not in each round the critical actors are involved, and how the behaviours and actions of actors involved influence the result of each round. According to round model, each round has a starting and concluding point. The starting point could be initiated by one or several actors who intend to adopt a certain combination of a problem definition and solution. The round could be finalized by several conditions such as when the key or powerful actors decided not to join the coalitions, when the negotiating parties reach an 11`

21 agreement, or due to the establishment of a new agenda driving the focus of the negotiations to another point intentionally (Frantzeskaki. N, 2005). The Stream Model As we also stated, the decision to implement the Eastern Flood Canal was finally taken in 2002 after 30 years delay. Given this event, we consider that it is important to analyze why after a long delay the Eastern Flood Canal was consider as the appropriate solution. We assume that that the role of a window of opportunity such as problem and political window might play an important role to the realization of the Eastern Flood Canal. We consider that the Stream Model (Kingdom, 1982) is an appropriate method; since Kingdon l stated that the confluence of three streams (problem, political and policy window) is the precondition for getting a matter on the agenda. Kingdon (1982) identified three streams: problems, solutions and political events. According to Kingdon, issues get on the agenda when a problem is recognized, a solution is available, and the political climate makes the time right to change. The confluence of these streams at critical junctures or policy windows which are open only for a short time when condition are right, is the precondition for getting a matter on the agenda (Mucciaroni, 1992). Kingdon describes two categories of policy windows; problem windows and political window. The problem window stem from problems that arise exogenously to the political stream and demand a policy response. The latter occur due to political events: changes of government, shifts in the "national mood," and the rise and fall of political fortunes (Lipson, 2004). However, open policy windows do not automatically bring to policy change. There must be deliberate efforts to seize the opportunity and push the problem onto the agenda before condition change. This is done by policy entrepreneurs. "Policy entrepreneurs" play a critical role in "coupling" problems and solutions during such windows of opportunity (Mucciaroni, 1992). 2.8 Conclusion In this chapter, the research questions including three sub research questions were presented. To answer the research and sub research questions the conceptual framework is constructed as shown in figure 2. There are two aspects as the focus of this thesis research to answer the research questions. They are the transition of public administration in water sector in Jakarta 12`

22 from centralization to decentralization and the policy making processes of the Eastern Flood Canals. We assumed that the long delay of the Eastern Flood Canal implementation is related to the actors influence and behaviour during the policy making process. The actors influence and behaviour depends on their position in network. The position of actors is indicated from the institutional structure of the public administration and water sector in Jakarta. The Round Model and the Stream model is used as data processing approach to structure the policy making processes of the Eastern Flood Canal. The methodology including data collection and data processing approaches is presented. The method using to collect the data is semi-structured interview by performing interview to several stakeholders both from government officer and citizens. In the next chapter (chapter 3), the general information about Eastern Flood Canal will be presented. Then, the following chapter, the first sub questions will be answered. The first sub question research is deal with the transition from centralized form to decentralized form and how it affects the decision making process of Eastern Flood canal. 13`

23 Chapter 3. Eastern Flood Canal 3.1 Introduction The goal of the chapter 3 is to give more detail description of the Eastern Flood Canal in term of goals, the physical characteristic and the geographical profile of the Eastern flood Canal. The chapter consists of two sections. In section 6.2 the technical design of the Eastern Flood Canal is presented consisting of the general physical characteristic, the geographical and general description of the regions of the Eastern Flood Canal. 3.2 Physical Characteristic of Eastern Flood Canals The design of the canal was revised by PT Virayama and Association in The study and revision of the Eastern Flood Canal Design was done based on the following considerations: 1. Differences in field conditions since the Detailed Design Study conducted in 1989; 2. The request of the people in order to make the Eastern Flood Canal has multi function purpose like building flood control, river transportation facilities, water supply, infrastructure and location of recreational facility and harbors facility in the Cakung region. The following are the design alternatives of the Eastern Flood canal 1. Alternative 1 Eastern Flood Canal can be used for transportation of cargo ships from the mouth to the inlet Cipinang River throughout the year. 2. Alternative 2 Eastern Flood Canal can be used to transport passengers from the estuary to inlet Cipinang River throughout year 3. Alternative 3 Eastern Flood Canal can be used for transportation of cargo ships from the estuary up to the second weir and to transport passengers from Weir 2 up to the inlet Cipinang River, according to the season. Based on the minimum impact on the environment, Alternative 3 was chosen to be followed up to the Detailed Design. Based on the new design, the Eastern Flood Canal with length of m will function to receive run off from Cipinang River, Sunter River, Buaran River, Jati Kramat River and Cakung River and then divert the water to the sea. The canal will have a width between m and along the canal there will be 18 m space outward as dry trace on the left and right hand side. 14`

24 The canal can mitigate 13 inundated or flooded risk areas in the East and North Jakarta with the total of protected area to reach ha. The canal with an approximately debit from m/det 3 can withstand periodical flood every one hundred years (Q 100). According to the new design, in addition to its main function to reduce flooding in 13 areas including protect the residential, industrial and warehousing in the East and North of Jakarta, the canal also serve as a water transportation facility, water conservation for the filling of land, sources of raw water, port, recreation, and is integrated with the overall development plan of DKI Jakarta. The length of the East Flood Canal Marunda Beach, North Jakarta until sub Cipinang Besar Selatan, Jakarta Timur approximately km and the length of the East Flood Canal in North Jakarta municipality from the Coastal Marunda until Rorotan bordering villages in North Jakarta and East Jakarta approximately 6.6 km. The width of east flood canal from Marunda village to Marunda Beach along 900 meters is 200 meters. Then the width of the canal to the south is approximately 100 meters. Based on the Review design of Eastern Flood Canal by PT Virayama, the trace of the Eastern Flood Canal encompasses three types of cross-section, namely: First (Weir I), a cross-section of the trace meters, along meters which will function as flood control. The first cross section will pass through the regions of Cipinang Village to East Cakung Village and Rorotan Village to Marunda Village. The width of the canal is 100 meters. Second (Weir II), a cross-section of the trace meters, will across East Cakung village along 350 meter. The second cross-section will function as recreation facilities and Marina in addition to its main functions as flood control. Third (Weir III), cross-section of the trace meters, along 850 meters in Marunda Villages from the sea to the south. The width of the canal is 200 meters which will function as a port. Under normal circumstances, Weir I, II and III will function as regulator for the water surface, the use of channel as a means of river transportation as well as to prevent reduction ground water / sea water intrusion and sedimentation of the channel. 15`

25 Figure 4 Debit of Eastern Flood Canal, (PT Virama Karya and Associates, 2003) The tropical moonsoon climate of the canal area comprises the rainy season from November to April and the dry season from May to October. The annual rainfall on the Eastern Flood Canal areas averages 910,6 3006,3 mm, with over 80 % occuring in the rainy season. 3.3 General Geographical Profile of the Eastern Flood Canal Geographically, the territory of the Eastern Flood Canal is located in Jakarta Region and it adjacent with Java Sea in the north side, Tangerang District, Banten Province in the West Side, Bekasi District, West Java Province in the East side and Bogor District, West Java Province in the South Side. The Eastern Flood Canal cut across three sub districts (kecamatan) in East Jakarta municipality and one sub district (kecamatan) in North Jakarta municipality. The three sub districts in the East Jakarta namely Jatinegara, Duren Sawit and Cakung Sub district. There are 11 villages within the three sub district that are passed over by the canal. Whilst in the North Jakarta Municipality, the canal cuts through two villages namely Rorotan and Marunda village which are under administrative Cilincing sub district. More details of the sub district and villages can be seen in table III.1 16`

26 The general description of the Regions/areas of the Eastern Flood Canal Based on decree of Governor DKI Jakarta No. 3504/2003 the construction of the East Canal trace will be started from Cipinang Rivers to the Java Sea and will across 11 Villages in East Jakarta and 2 Villages in North Jakarta. Table 1 Description of Areas of the Eastern Flood Canal No Villages Length (m) Municipality 1 Cipinang Besar Selatan 770 East Jakarta 2 Cipinang Muara 758 East Jakarta 3 Pondok Bambu 2072 East Jakarta 4 Duren Sawit 1705 East Jakarta 5 Pondok Kelapa 193 East Jakarta 6 Malaka Jaya 433 East Jakarta 7 MAlaka Sari 717 East Jakarta 8 Pondok Kopi 1816 East Jakarta 9 Pulo Gebang 3137 East Jakarta 10 Ujung Menteng 2884 East Jakarta 11 Cakung Timur 2019 East Jakarta 12 Rorotan 3055 North Jakarta 13 Marunda 3615 North Jakarta Source: DKI Jakarta Provincial Government Land required for the canal development is hectares BKT consisting of hectares in North Jakarta and hectares in East Jakarta (Wawan, 2007). On the last decade, the eastern and northern area of hectares of DKI Jakarta has developed into industrial, warehousing, and settlements. Distribution of land use for residential, industrial, and other sub-villages in the region BKT can be seen in the following table. Table 2 Percentage of Land Use by Villages in the area of the Eastern Flood Canal 2001 No Village Land Used (%) Settlement Industry Others 1 Cipinang Besar Selatan 64,99 2,50 32,51 2 Cipinang Muara 88,44 0,35 11,21 3 Pondok Bambu 87,21 0,00 12,79 4 Duren Sawit 77,56 0,00 22,44 5 Pondok Kelapa 67,81 1,20 30,99 6 Malaka Sari 94,20 0,00 5,80 7 Malaka Jaya 71,96 0,00 28,04 8 Pondok Kopi 79,17 0,10 20,73 9 Pulo Gebang 84,00 3,00 13,00 17`

27 No Village Land Used (%) Settlement Industry Others 10 Cakung Timur 64,19 11,50 24,31 11 Ujung Menteng 20,47 18,79 60,74 12 Rorotan 41,45 4,69 53,86 13 Marunda 21,05 10,03 68,92 TOTAL Source: BPS Kotamadya Jakarta Timur dan BPS Kotamadya Jakarta Utara. East Jakarta is the largest municipality among the five municipalities in Jakarta with an area of km 2. The construction of the canals in this area will cut across 11 villages (see table 2). The areas in the East Jakarta that will be acquired for the construction of the canal are 70 % dominated by the settlement areas. North Jakarta is a city administration in the northern part of Province of DKI Jakarta. The north location which is directly adjacent to the Java Sea is the final location of BKT. The location will function as regulator of the water discharge of the Eastern Flood Canal trace. Unlike the East Jakarta, which consists of 11 villages that are by passed by the construction of the Eastern Flood Canal, North Jakarta, consists of only two villages (see table 2). North Jakarta, which is downstream from the trace of the canal, is dominated by agricultural activities with a small portion of settlements in the surrounding area. 18`

28 Part B: Analysis and Evaluation Outcome

29 Chapter 4. Public administration changes in Indonesia and water sector in Jakarta 4.1 Introduction The policy making process of Eastern Flood Canal lasted 30 years. As shown in the conceptual framework (chapter 2), the first aspect that is going to be investigated for answering the research questions relates to the institutional changes in Indonesia and in the water sector in Jakarta specifically. A starting hypothesis concerns that the delay in the implementation may bear from the way institution operate in Indonesia and in the water sector in Jakarta. In this chapter, we elaborate on the way of the institutional change influences policy making process of the Eastern Flood Canal. The goal of the third chapter is to answer the first research sub question How does the institutional structure and its change from centralization to decentralization affect the policy making process of the Eastern Flood Canal?. By understanding the administration structure in Indonesia and in the water sector in Jakarta, we can define the position of several actors and their interrelationships in relation to Jakarta flood control management. Understanding their position in administration structure is very important so as to analyze how their positions may influence their perceptions and interest about the flood problem in Jakarta (Enserink, 2009). We expect that the institutional shift from centralization to decentralization changed the position of the some actor in administration structure and their power or resources as well. The institutional shift may also influence their behaviour and action during the policy making process. This aspect is considered to be one factor that influenced the duration of the policy making process of the Eastern Flood Canal. The fourth chapter consists of five sections. In section 4.1 the goal of the chapter is presented. In Section 4.2, the institutional structures of Indonesia and Jakarta are presented. The management concerning flood management institutions and roles are presented in the next section (Section 4.3) including the task division and the responsibility between the Central government and the Regional government (Provincial and lower level) and the coordination between the institutions. In section 4.4 the analysis on how the institutional changes affect the policy making processes of the Eastern Flood Canal will be presented. At the end of the chapter, the conclusion is presented. Those 19`

30 findings are synthesized from the literature study and from the findings of the interviews. 4.2 Institutional structure of Indonesia and water sector of Jakarta The policy process of the Eastern Flood Canal lasted for many years. It started from 1970s and finally implemented in 2003; after it went through several studies and perfections. Two distinct phases can be distinguished in the macro context of the Eastern Flood Canal policy processes. First, the Eastern Flood Canal Master Plans were constructed during Soeharto s regimes when the government practice in Indonesia was highly centralized and autocratic and the public infrastructure development funds were relied on external loans. Second, the decision to implement the Eastern Flood Canal was taken by Indonesia s government after the transition from centralization to decentralization took place in The institutional shift bears better democratic practice in Indonesia. To better explain the changes that were realized after decentralization, the general structure of the institutions and the relationship between intergovernmental bodies are elaborated in the next section Deconcentrated government prior to the year 2000 During Soeharto s order reign ( ), Indonesia s system of government was centralized and autocratic (Usman, 2001). Under his authority, Soeharto consolidated powers at the center in all sectors (Usman, 2001) including the water sector (Bhat, et. al, 2005) and reduced or eliminated resisting regimes and elements in society. The Regional government responsibilities were held in check through very clear submissive roles in the name of maintaining national unity. The Provinces and Districts government, established through Law No. 4/1974. According to this law, the Central Government set policies and regulations, provinces undertook coordination and supervision duties as agents of the center, and districts were responsible for implementation (Ferrazzi, 2000). The President had authority and strong power to determine the nature of regional autonomy. The government officials of Regional level (Provincial, Municipality or District) were appointed and elected directly by the President. The President also had authority to dismiss the Governor and 20`

31 Head of Municipality or District (Walikota or Bupati). The government system of Indonesia during this time was characterized by closeness, military power and elimination of resisting regimes (Dauvergne, ). The freedom of press was very limited and highly controlled by the Government. The resistance from group of people or other actions that might harm the position or interest of the central government was usually eliminated through military power. The strong centralized government was maintained until the reform in Decentralization, the establishment Law no 22/1999 Decentralization includes the changes that result in transfer of the responsibilities from the central government to the local level where citizens can readily participate in decision affecting them (Jhonson and Minis, 1990). Administrators in many developing countries are increasingly performing decentralization as a strategy for addressing a number of critical government needs such as strengthen government, increased transparency and accountability and more effective and efficient production and delivery of public goods and services including in water sector services. Water management, which was previously assumed to be best undertaken through centralization arrangements, has come to be associated with the concept of decentralization, of managing water at the lowest appropriate level (Mody 2001, cited by Bhat et.al, 2005). In Indonesia, the shift from centralization to decentralization was initiated after the fall of Soeharto s regime in The institutional change was performed through the establishment of the Law No 22/1999. The establishment of this law has changed the intergovernmental relation in Indonesia. It has been said that decentralization in Indonesia has moved from strong deconcentration practice to more devolved form (Smoke, 2007, cited by Darmawan, 2008). According to this Law, additional powers and responsibilities are being devolved to regional level (provincial and district and governments) establishing a far more decentralized institutional structure compared to the co-administrated systems of the past. The responsibilities of Regional level authorities (Provincials and Municipalities) covers all sectors include water and land sector. (Usman, 2001, Bhat. A & Molinga. P. P, 2009). 21`