IV. Democracy. Democracy

Transcription

1 IV. Democracy Democracy Just as nearly every ideological framework purports to further the cause of freedom, nearly every ideological framework also claims to be in favour of democracy. Some (few) exceptions: fascism, extreme religious fundamentalism (theocracy). 1

2 In blue: De jure, self-described democracies In red: Swaziland, Saudi Arabia, Myanmar, Bhutan, Brunei, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Vatican City. (Hallman, 2006) The Economist Democracy Index (Jan, 2007) Lighter = more democratic; Darker = less democratic. Sweden: 9.88, North Korea:

3 Surprising? Implausible? Maybe, maybe not: It is possible that some who claim to support democracy might simply be hypocritical or deceptive. But, on the other hand, followers of different ideologies [might] simply have different ideas about how to achieve democracy (BDCC, 15) Democracy? E.g., In the German Democratic Republic (GDR, ) freedom of speech was severely curtailed, surveillance commonplace, (e.g., by the Stasi), competition for public office effectively outlawed. For many, the GDR was anything but democratic a cynical appropriation of the word. 3

4 Democracy? But, as BDCC note, even authoritarian leaders might (sometimes) be sincere in claiming to support democracy. E.g., according to Mao Zedong, the people s democratic dictatorship is said to be a preparation for more open democracy to follow. Democracy is the (alleged) goal, even if nondemocratic (or anti-democratic) means might have to be used to achieve it. Another, related, possibility Canadian political theorist C. B. Macpherson (1965): Democracy can be understood as either or both of: a) Government by the people b) Government for the people In sense b), even governments that we might think of as downright oppressive might nonetheless rightly call themselves democratic 4

5 An Essentially Contested Concept Macpherson s distinction is consistent with BDCC s claims: Democracy, like freedom, is an essentially contested concept (16) It is an ideal that most ideologies espouse, but since people understand democracy in very different ways, democracy is pursued in very different ways. Democracy: The Word Demos the common people, the mob Demokratia rule by the common people In ancient Greece indeed, until quite recent times this is understood to contrast with: Aristoi the best, the qualified Aristokratia rule by the best; the most qualified 5

6 Vulgar Democracy Attitudes toward democracy may be conditioned by attitudes toward the common people : Among the ancient Greeks (and others): the uneducated, the unsophisticated, the poor. Thus, a form of class rule: rule by and for the benefit of the working class. No surprise, these attitudes have affected the way democracy has been understood historically. Athenian Democracy I A democratic city-state or polis Proud of their democracy, but some tension between democratic and aristocratic factions. (see, e.g., Pericles s Funeral Oration) Countermeasures to mob rule : Citizens paid to attend assembly, to serve on juries. Some public offices filled by lottery. 6

7 Athenian Democracy II The public-spirited citizen (polites) is to be preferred over the self-interested individual (idiotes). Why? In part, better decisions. Pericles: we are all sound judges of a policy (18). On the other hand, not every Athenian was a citizen: Women, slaves, resident foreigners excluded. In fact, only about 10% of the Athenian population were citizens. Ostracism An ostrakon, in this case calling for the banishment of Themistocles. Also, by modern standards, Athenian democracy afforded little protection for minority rights. Witness the case of Socrates ( BCE) 7

8 Beginnings of Political Theory Plato ( BCE): Not only does democracy risk rule by the ignorant, it is inherently unstable. The poor selfishly will plunder the rich. The ignorant will be susceptible to demagogues. The result? Disorder, leading the people to accept the rule of tyrants. Aristotle s Classification of Regimes In whose interest? Public Self The one Monarchy Tyranny Rule by The few Aristocracy Oligarchy The many Polity Democracy True Perverted 8

9 Polity and the Mixed Regime Polity is preferable to democracy, according to Aristotle. Citizens of a polity seek the common good and therefore are more apt to implement a mixed constitution or government. Limitations on power, checks and balances Polity also depends on a relatively equal distribution of wealth. People with sufficient and moderate wealth (a middle class) have a stake in society and will therefore seek order and stability. They will naturally see the good of the polis as their own good. Athenian democracy, it is said, finds its clearest theoretical expression (with Aristotle), just as it begins to be eclipsed by the rise of empire. First under Philip of Macedonia ( BCE), then under Aristotle s one-time student, Alexander the Great ( BCE). Power passes into the hands of an emperor: The city-state and rule by the many fade in significance. 9

10 Republic Popular government survives in the ancient world in the form of republican rule at Rome. Republic < Latin res publica, the public business, literally the public thing Polybius s View The Greek historian Polybius (c BCE) was a great admirer of the Roman Republic (509 ca: 31 BCE). Why? A mixed form of government. No one neither the one, the few nor the many holds all the power. Moreover, a republic, in contrast to a democracy, promotes virtue: The publicminded citizen is given scope to work for the common good, but is prevented from seizing too much power. 10

11 From Republic to Empire As with Athenian democracy, the Roman Republic gives way to empire (i.e., after the rise of Caesar Augustus in 27 BCE). The Roman Empire provides the social context (and later, following the Emperor Constantine, CE, the political context) for the development of a universal Christian church Christianity and Democracy On the one hand, Christian egalitarianism seems a natural ally of democracy: Rich or poor, slave or free, Greek, Jew or Roman, all are equal in the eyes of God On the other hand, early Christianity is largely apolitical: render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar s, render unto to God the things that are God s (Luke 20:25) 11

12 Christianity and Democracy Moreover, Christians have often advocated the idea of God-given authority : Let every person be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from God, and those that exist have been instituted by God (Romans 12:1) This idea strongly contributes, later on, to the rise of feudalism and the related idea of the great chain of being Ancient Times to Modernity: Highlights Italian Renaissance: Re-emergence of the republican city-state. Machiavelli s Discourses (1531) a government of laws, not of men Harrington s Oceana (1656) redistribution of land in a balanced republic British North America: Re-emergence of the ideal of democratic government. 12

13 Tocqueville Alexis de Tocqueville ( ); Democracy in America Democracy, says Tocqueville, is the American ethos; not just in government, but in civil society as well. Its danger: Tyranny of the majority. Its promise: Civic virtue through participation. The Growth of Democracy 19 th century: Increasing popularity of democracy due to social, economic, technological changes. (literacy, industrial production, communications) Gradual expansion of the franchise; first to property-owing males, then universal male suffrage, later freed-slaves, much later women. 13

14 Self-Protection, Self-Development The Utilitarian philosophers, esp. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, argue for representative democracy, with a greatly expanded franchise. Self-Protection: Each has an opportunity to look out for his own interests. Self-Development: Political participation develops civic virtue and educates citizens, leading to better policies. Three Conceptions of Democracy BDCC highlight (33-5) three conceptions of democracy, each of which connects the democratic ideal to a different ideological framework: 1. Liberal Democracy 2. Social Democracy 3. People s Democracy 14

15 Liberal Democracy The view of democracy that characterizes most Western democracies. Rule by the people (and, usually, for the people), but majority rule must be limited. Strong protection for individual and minority rights (e.g., through constitutional provisions for judicial review). Social Democracy A common understanding of democracy in Europe, especially Scandinavia. (Also Canada?) Protection of individual and minority rights is supplemented by a concern for socio-economic equality (positive freedom). Redistribution of wealth, state financing of election campaigns, public control/regulation of industry and natural resources. 15

16 People s Democracy Formerly the official view of democracy in the Soviet Bloc, still the official view of the People s Republic of China, North Korea, Cuba Rule for (but not necessarily by) the people, specifically the working class, the proletariat. Dictatorship of the proletariat suppresses the influence of capitalists and the bourgeoisie, preparing the way for a withering away of the state. Democracy Today As we shall see later on, each of these conceptions of democracy can be seen as under threat in the globalized world. Also, while it is true that most ideologies supposedly support democracy, there remains the question of democracy for whom? and the interaction between democracy and nationalism in the contemporary world. 16

17 Democracy as a Global Issue Former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan: Democracies generally are less likely to go to war with one another. (Kant s requirement for publicity) But at the same time, democracies may be slow or reluctant to act in aid of a just cause. (e.g., the rise of Hitler) Democracy as a Global Issue II The spread of democracy is (almost unarguably) a good thing, yet this may require peacebuilding and other interventions that affluent democracies have sometimes been reluctant to support. Still, says Annan, democratization is rightly part of the United Nations agenda. (139) 17

18 Democratization could be helped by reform of UN institutions (e.g. the Security Council), but it is also in the interests of transnational corporations to cooperate in this process (e.g., the Global Compact, 140) 18