Chapter 16: Absolutism and Constitutionalism in Europe. What made the seventeenth century an "age of crisis"?

Transcription

1 Chapter 16: Absolutism and Constitutionalism in Europe What made the seventeenth century an "age of crisis"? Partially due to climate changes; but more about religious divides, increased gov't pressures, and war. Peasant Life in the Midst of Economic Crisis Seventeenth century was marked by small rural, peasant villages centered on a church and a 'manor'; small number of peasant land owners in each village who owned enough land to keep the community working, eating and living. Peasant communities were on the verge of subsistence but were constantly threatened by scarcity and famine; bread was the primary staple of European diets. Europe goes through a "little ice age" which shortened growing seasons and resulted in population declines. Harsh life led to a struggle in industry as well; particularly woolen textiles. The Return of Serfdom in the East Western Europe saw the breakdown of serfdom as peasants gained land after the Black Death. Eastern Europe saw labor shortages that were dealt with by restricting peasant opportunities: lords would own land and force peasants to work. 1

2 The Thirty Years' War ( ) Holy Roman Empire was a confederation of areas drawn together loosely under one elected emperor. Catholics and Protestants were still trying to maintain their power and subsequent land and formed leagues: Protestant Union (1608), Catholic League (1609) to protect their territories. War was probably the most destructive event for central European economy and society prior to the two world wars. One third of urban residents and two fifths of the rural populations died. Traditionally divided into four phases: First: Bohemian Phase ( ) Characterized by war in Bohemia between P. Union and C. League. Catholics defeat Protestants at the battle of White Mountain. Second: Danish Phase ( ) Saw the leadership of Charles IV of Denmark diminish as a result of more Catholic victories. Third: Swedish Phase ( ) Came with the arrival of Gustavus Adolphus and his army into Germany to support Protestants but was met by the French under Cardinal Richelieu. Adolphus won two important battles but is killed in combat. Fourth: French Phase ( ) Richelieu was worried about Habsburg power in Europe and declared war on Spain. Peace of Westphalia (1648) was a series of treaties that concluded the Thirty Years' War and recognized the independent authority of more than 300 German princes reaffirming the emperor's limited authority. Peace of Augsburg (1555) (earlier agreement to cease fighting) is upheld permanently which allowed the princes to the religions for their areas. 2

3 Achievements in State Building Historians distinguish between the 'absolutist' gov'ts of France, Spain, Central Europe and Russia to the 'constitutional' gov'ts of England and the Dutch Republic. Absolutist monarchs gathered all of the power under their personal control; nothing is more important than their power or the state. Constitutional rulers were obliged to respect laws passed by representative institutions. Common ideas were to protect and expand their frontiers, raise new taxes, consolidate central control, and compete for colonies opening up in the New and Old worlds. Problems: Rulers faced many obstacles: information was not easily transmitted, lack of information about their holdings (making policing and taxing difficult), local bodies of gov't held power (nobles, churches, provincial and national assemblies, town councils, guilds and others) which was not easily taken away. Focused on four areas: Greater taxation Growth in armed forces Larger and more efficient bureaucracies Increased ability to compel obedience from subjects 3

4 Warfare and the Growth of Army Size Driving force of state building was warfare; dramatic changes in size and style of armies. New techniques meant rise in professional standards. Explosive growth of the size of armies: ex. France went from 125,000 soldiers to 340,000 at the end of the Thirty Years' War. Popular Political Action Increased taxes and larger armies led to popular protests. The limitations of royal authorities in some areas gave an advantage to rebels, allowing them to gain local power. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, these protests became less effective as the local gov't structures were supported by prompt military support. Why did France rise and Spain fall in this period? Absolutist power: 'divine right' God alone granted exclusive power to rulers to make and enforce laws, denying any other institution of authority to 'check' their power. 4

5 The Foundation of Absolutism Known as the 'Age of Absolutism' political period that encouraged rulers to claim complete sovereignty; make laws, dispense justice, create/direct bureaucracy, declare wars and tax without approval. Also the 'Age of Empire': Portuguese, English, French, Dutch and Spanish Other political gov't growth: Prussia, Russia, Ottomans and England. The Appeal: 1. Stability, prosperity and order 2. Strong command: armed forces, legal system, right to collect/spend financial resources 3. Create efficient/centralized bureaucracy that has allegiance to monarch 4. Ability to weaken special interest: independent minded representative assemblies (parliaments, diets, estates generals) France: culture, manners and language donned society. French diplomacy and wars shaped political affairs of west/central Europe. Henry IV (r ) (married to Marie de' Medici) drew France into a recovery based on his policies. Issued the Edict of Nantes where Protestants could worship in traditionally Protestant towns throughout France. Louis XIII (r ) nine years old when he was crowned king after his father (Henry IV) was murdered. Was too young to 'truly' rule so the power was assumed by Cardinal Richelieu ( ) who became the first minister of the French crown. helped strengthen monarchy/eliminated potential threats anti Habsburg policies system of 'intendants': royal officials sent out into the provinces to execute orders of the centralized gov't. System of spies. financial system corrupt and debt/taxes continued to rise. 5

6 Louis XIV (r ) assumes the crown when he is only four years old after his father and Richelieu die within six months of one another. Anne of Austria (regent of France) shifts power to a second minister; Cardinal Mazarin (r ) Fronde revolts: nobility losing power to central gov't, opposed new taxes that angered citizens. Louis's reign: Cardinal dies when Louis is 23 years old he is grand, noble and graceful dubbed himself the 'Sun King'; source of light for all of his people overlapping authority: local estates, courts, provinces had their own courts/sets of laws which the king could not easily diminish Versailles importance 1. Household of the king; grand stature 2. Location of central gov't 3. Powerful subjects came to gain power/office By controlling the high nobility in council at Versailles, Louis centralized the four important factions of gov't 1. foreign policy 2. making war and peace 3. secular power over the crown 4. ability to control finances (levy taxes) Religious policy: destruction of Huguenot and Protestant churches and many people were aid to have left France as a result; weakening the economy and tax base. Financial: Jean Baptiste Colbert (Controller General of France) was responsible for: building Versailles, maintaining the king's court, general adherence to mercantilism. more imports than exports better quality French goods tax exemptions to people who established new industries built roads and canals raised tariffs on foreign goods created merchant marine to navigate goods/policies. Problems: the more money Colbert was able to raise, the more money Louis spent burden of taxes fell on the lower classes, particularly the peasants. only geared toward making the king more powerful. 6

7 Louis XIV's Wars Secretary of war (Marquis de Louvois) created a professional army to help Louis to expand France to it's 'natural' borders. He staged four wars to secure these areas; Spanish Netherlands and Flanders, Alsace and Lorraine. costly, ineffective tax payers suffered, crops failed and there was widespread malnutrition and death. Two Objectives: 1. Diminish Habsburg power 2. Increase Louis' dynastic power Began to upset other bordering nations; Spain (which had specifically fought against France), German States, and the Spanish Netherlands (loosely controlled by Spain. When Louis XIV died in 1715, France was on the brink of bankruptcy and although many mourned, many were relieved that he would no longer rule. The Decline of Spain Most populace empire in the world; South/Central Americas, Asia, Africa Phillip II and Phillip III both saw Spain into bankruptcy through wars (1596 & 1607) Phillip IV ( ) decreased power of Cath Church in gov't, reformed central authority and strengthened monarchy but involvement in the Thirty Years War incited internal revolts and civil wars and destroys Spanish army. Problems: Armed forces out of date inefficient gov't weak middle class with a suppressed peasant class luxury loving class of nobles over supply of priests/monks 7

8 What explains the rise of absolutism in Austria and Prussia? Ottoman power diminishes and Austro Hungarian empire of the Habsburgs becomes dominant power. The Habsburgs Austria becomes great cultural/political center after acquiring territory and being buffered from the Ottomans by Hungary. becomes a loose confederation of divided territories with different religions, ethnicity and languages. Vienna becomes the political/cultural center of the empire. Prussia Hohenzollern family aimed to acquire territory which divided the territories they already owned. Frederick William 'The Great Elector' ( ) Built a strong military power by philosophy of nobles (Junkers) enlisting their peasants who could move up in rank by merit. Persuaded Junkers to accept taxation w/o consent to fund permanent army. Frederick William I 'The Soldiers' King' (r ) Eliminated Parliamentary estates and local self gov't transformed Prussia into militaristic state army expansion was achieved through conscription 8

9 Autocracy in Russia Rule of Tsar Peter I ( ) 6'7" tall with an explosive personality overthrew his half sister Sophia to rule Russia executed 1,200 conspirators who tried to restore Sophia imposed social and cultural reforms on Russian nobility cut beards, learn manners and show them, educate through western European ideas. goal was to make Russia a great military power. system of merit for nobility from 'lower' landlord class to 'highest' military class; expected to participate in army and administration Absolute autocrat of his empire; contolled all aspect of Russian life & gov't eliminated the Duma (nation's national assembly) took control over the Russian Orthodox Church Taxes increased 500% during his reign Peter's Foreign Policy Secure ports on the Baltic and Black Seas, with Ottomans as his enemy; he was unsuccessful. 21 yr war with Sweden; by 1703 Peter secured area in the gulf of Finland where he built his capital of St. Peterburg Personal Life Had his own son Alexis executed in 1718 for suspected conspiracies. Without an heir to the throne Peter died in

10 England and the Constitutional Monarchy 17th Century struggle between king and Parliament; roles in governing the nation. King James I (r ) (Also King James VI of Scotland) Son of Mary Queen of Scots Knew little about English laws, institutions and customs of England. Believed in divine right of kings which alienated Parl.; they refused his requests for more money. Charles I (r ) Son of James I 'Long Parliament' who served to stop Charles from ruling on his own; Passed the 'Petition of Rights': prohibited taxation w/o Parl. consent, arbitrary imprisonment, quartering of soldiers declaration of martial law in peacetime. Married Catholic sister of Louis XIII which brought up religious suspicions He introduced Catholic rituals to the Anglican Church. English Civil War ( ) Fight between the power of the king and the power of Parliament. Phase I: Creation of New Model Army Oliver Cromwell was one of group leaders; well trained/disciplined in the latest military tactics. Captured King Charles I in 1646 Phase II: Charles flees and Cromwell engages the troops again Recaptured the King and tried him for treason. Ordered the King beheaded 10

11 Cromwell and the New Government Parliament abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords Proclaimed England a 'republic' or 'commonwealth' Had to diminish the voice of radicals (Levellers) advocating for religious toleration, democratic republic; all males over 21 could vote, women's equality and gov't programs for poor. Cromwell uses army to stop radicals and is successful. Also got rid of Parl. members that disagreed with him. Cromwell destroyed both King and Parliament Army drew up 'Instrument of Gov't.'; 1st and only constitution divided country into 11 regions used military force to pursue policies: ironically similar in nature to absolutism. Cromwell dies in 1658 and many Parl. members called for a restoration of the monarchy; Charles II is chosen. 11

12 Restoration of the Monarchy New Parliament (established under Cromwell: 1661) kept power. consent to tax arbitrary courts abolished restored Anglican Church Charles II (r ) Passed laws to accepts Catholics and Puritans into the Anglican Church Issued the Declaration of Indulgence which suspended laws Parl. passed against these groups. Parliament still held anti Catholic sentiments & passed the Test Act of 1673 stating that only Anglicans could hold military & civil offices. also tried to pass a bill to clock Charles II's brother (Catholic) James II from being the next in line to the throne. bill failed but it created two political groups: *Whigs: supporters of Parl. who want to control who becomes king *Tories: Supporters of the king and his successors James II (r ) Devout Catholic which created a separation of the king and Parliament Named Catholics to high positions in military and education. Issued declaration which suspended laws barring religious dissenters from holding high offices. Protestant daughters Mary and Anne for the next heirs to the throne. 12

13 Glorious Revolution Seven prominent Englishman (well connected Parl members) invite William of Orange (James II's daughter Mary's husband) to invade England William and Mary raise an army and invade England James II, his wife and their new son fee without bloodshed. William and Mary are offered the throne in 1689 and establish three important measures of legislation; 1. They give up some of their powers as monarchs to establish a constitutional gov't 2. The English Bill of Rights 3. The Toleration Act of 1689: Puritans get freedom of public worship (but not Catholics) Revolution Response John Locke ( ) best defender against absolutist rule humans lived in a state of equality/freedom before gov't people have certain inalienable rights; life, liberty and property gov't needed to exist to protect these rights if gov't did not, people should peacefully protest against it 'social contract' 13