Non-Conventional Energy Resources. G.S. Sawhney

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1 Non-Conventional Energy Resources G.S. Sawhney

2 Non-Conventional Energy Resources G.S. SAWHNEY Professor and Head Department of Mechanical Engineering Accurate Institute of Management and Technology Greater Noida Formerly Professor and Head Department of Mechanical Engineering GNIT, Greater Noida and LKIE, Ghaziabad New Delhi

3 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES G.S. Sawhney 2012 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi and Printed by Baba Barkha Nath Printers, Bahadurgarh, Haryana

4 CONTENTS Preface xi 1. ENERGY RESOURCES AND THEIR UTILISATION Introduction Energy Resources Classification of Energy Resources Types of Energy Resources Thermal Energy Hydel Energy Nuclear Energy Solar Energy Wind Energy Tidal Energy Geothermal Energy Ocean Energy Energy Parameters Energy Intensity Energy Elasticity Indian and Global Energy Resources Significance of Non-Conventional Energy Resources Energy Policy in India World Energy Status Indian Energy Scenario Environment Aspects of Energy Pollution Greenhouse Effects Energy Chain SOLAR RADIATION Introduction Radiation Spectrum from Sun and Earth 27 iii

5 iv CONTENTS 2.3 Extraterrestrial Radiation and Solar Constant Latitude and Longitude Basic Sun Earth Angles Angle between Incident Beam and Normal to Inclined Surface (q) Local Apparent Time Sunrise, Sunset and Solar Day Length Intensity of Terrestrial Radiation Solar Radiation Data Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation ( H g ) on Horizontal Surface Monthly Average Daily Diffuse Radiation on Horizontal Surface Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation on Tilted Surface ( H T) Measurements of Solar Radiation Data SOLAR ENERGY Introduction Solar Collectors Classification of Solar Collectors Flat Plate Collector Modified Flat Plate Collector Compound Parabolic Concentrator Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator Linear Fresnel Lens Collector Fixed Mirror Solar Concentrator Paraboloidal Dish Collector Hemispherical Bowl Mirror Concentrator Circular Fresnel Lens Concentrator Central Tower Receiver Collector Comparison between Flat and Focussing Collectors Orientation of Flat Plate Collector Collector Performance Testing Solar Energy Storage Classification of Solar Energy Storage System Sensible Heat Storage Latent Heat Storage Solar Pond Solar Water Heater Solar Thermal Pump Solar Furnace Solar Passive Heating Solar Passive Space Cooling Solar Refrigeration and Cooling System Solar Vapour Compression Refrigeration and Cooling Solar Cookers Solar Distillation Solar Thermal Power Plants Solar Greenhouse 85

6 CONTENTS v 4. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM Introduction Solar Cell Fundamentals Semiconductors Photovoltaic Effect Solar Cell, Module, Panel and Array Solar Cell Solar PV Module Solar PV Panel Solar PV Array Solar Cell Characteristics Voltage Current Characteristic of p-n Junction (Solar Cell) Energy Losses of Solar Cell Maximising the Performance Materials for Solar Cells Solar PV Systems Central Power Station System Stand-Alone System Grid Interactive Solar PV System Small Consumer Systems Hybrid Solar PV System Advantages and Disadvantages of PV System Solar PV System and Cost Solar PV Programme in India Energy Payback Period of a Solar Cell BIOGAS Introduction Photosynthesis Biomass Biofuels Biomass Resources Advantages and Disadvantages of Biomass Energy Biogas Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes Anaerobic Digestion Classification of Biogas Plants Application of Biogas in IC Engine Models of Biogas Plants Biogas Plant in Hilly Area By-Product of Digestion Location of Biogas Plant Size of Biogass Plant Problems and Constraints in the Use of Biogas Community Biogas Plants Biomass Conversion Technologies Biomass Gasification Energy Recovery from Urban Waste by Landfill Reactors Power Generation from Liquid Waste Biomass Resource Development and Energy Plantation Biomass Energy Programme in India 127

7 vi CONTENTS 6. WIND ENERGY Introduction Origin of Winds Global Winds Local Winds Distribution of Wind Energy Nature of Wind Meterological Data about Wind Speed Wind Speed Variations with Height Wind Turbine Siting Wind Turbine Aerodynamics Energy Available in Wind Terms and Definitions of Fluid Mechanics Principle of Power Generation Axial Thrust on Turbine Torque Generated by Wind Turbine Tip Speed Ratio for Maximum Output Aerodynamic Considerations Types of Windmills Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Rotors of HAWT Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Rotor of VAWT Comparison of HAWT and VAWT Savonius Rotor Darrieus Rotor Wind Energy Storage Environmental Impacts of Wind Turbines Recent Development Wind Energy Programme in India ELECTROCHEMICAL EFFECTS AND FUEL CELLS Introduction Fuel and Oxidant Primary and Secondary Fuel Cells Fuel Cell Principle of Fuel Cell Efficiency of Fuel Cell Types of Fuel Cells Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell Alkaline Fuel Cell Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Solid Oxide or Ceramics Fuel Cell Regenerative Fuel Cell Performance Limiting Factors of Fuel Cell Losses of a Fuel Cell Advantages and Limitations of a Fuel Cell Application of a Fuel Cell 178

8 CONTENTS vii 8. HYDROGEN ENERGY Introduction Hydrogen as a Source of Renewable Energy Production of Hydrogen Storage of Hydrogen Advances in Storage of Hydrogen Hydrogen Powered Vehicles and Storage Cost of Hydrogen Storage Transportation or Delivery of Hydrogen Hydrogen as Fuel and Safety Issues Conversion of Hydrogen Applications of Hydrogen THERMOELECTRIC SYSTEMS FOR DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION Introduction Important Physical Effects Thermoelectric Generator Materials for a Thermoelectric Generator Characteristics of a Thermoelectric Generator Applications of a Thermoelectric Generator Magnetohydrodynamic Power Conversion Principle of Operation of an MHD Generator MHD Generator Seeding of Carrier Gas in MHD Generator Overall Power Cycle with MHD Converter MHD Systems Open Cycle Systems Closed Cycle System Materials for MHD Generators Thermionic Power Conversion Merits of Thermionic Converter Applications of the Thermionic Converter TIDAL POWER Introduction Origin of Tides Tidal Energy Modes of Operation of Tidal Power Plant Components of the Tidal Power Plant Feasibility of the Tidal Power Plant Merits of Tidal Energy Limitations of Tidal Energy Classification of Tidal Plant Single Basin System Double Basin System Site Requirements Tidal Power Development in India 211

9 viii CONTENTS 11. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Introduction Resources of Geothermal Energy Geothermal Power Plants Hydrothermal Resources Hot Dry Rock Resource Comparison of Geothermal Power Plant with Convention Thermal Power Plant Non-Electrical Applications of Geothermal Energy Advantages and Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy Materials for Geothermal Plant Equipment Environmental Problems from Geothermal Energy Criteria for Selection of Geothermal Site Potential of Geothermal Energy in India Exploration and Development of Geothermal Resources WAVE ENERGY Introduction Wave Energy and Power Wave Energy Devices Advantages and Disadvantages of Wave Energy OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY Introduction Working Principle of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems Status of OTEC Plants Merits and Demerits of OTEC Plant ENVIRONMENT AND KYOTO PROTOCOL Introduction Environmental Aspects Greenhouse Effect Global Warming Kyoto Protocol SMALL HYDRO RESOURCE Introduction Conversion of Hydropower Turbines Speed Control of Turbines Suitability of Turbines Small Hydropower Plants Demerits of Small Hydropower Sources Merits of Small Hydropower Resources Bulb Turbine Components of a Small Hydropower Plant Designing of a Micro Hydel Scheme 245

10 CONTENTS ix 15.4 Concept and Potential of Micro Hydel in India Research and Development in India Micro Hydropower for Socio-Economic Development ENERGY MANAGEMENT Introduction Energy Economics Definitions Energy Commodities and Energy Resources Energy Conversion Processes Demand for Energy Energy Demand Substitution Energy Efficiency Standards to Optimise Consumer Choices Energy Conservation Aspects of Energy Conservation Principles of Energy Conservation Energy Conservation Act Cogeneration Combined or Binary Cycle Plants Energy Management and Audit Definition and Objectives of Energy Management Energy Audit and Need Types of Energy Audit Preliminary Audit Detailed Energy Audit Methodology for Detailed Audit Energy Efficiency in Indian Industry Status of Energy-Efficient Technologies in India 264 BIBLIOGRAPHY 267 INDEX

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