ASSESSING POTENTIAL OCEAN POLLUTANTS. to the. Ocean Affairs Board. Commission on Natural Resources National Research Council

Transcription

1 ASSESSING POTENTIAL OCEAN POLLUTANTS A Report of the Study Panel on Assessing Potential Ocean Pollutants to the Ocean Affairs Board Commission on Natural Resources National Research Council NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES WASHINGTON, D.C. 197/5

2 THE OVERVIEW GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS OCEAN AFFAIRS BOARD iii ASSESSING POTENTIAL OCEAN POLLUTANTS STUDY PANEL iv Research Associates Workshop Participants Workshop Staff PREFACE iv v viii ix SECTION I STUDY AND ITS RESULTS 1 CHAPTER I 3 Purposes 3 General Results and Assessment 3 Key Characteristics of Potential Pollutants 4 Extrapolation to Other Materials 5 Predicting Environmental Transport and Exposure Levels 6 Predicting Biological Impact 6 Irreversibility 9 Limitations of the Study and Research Needs 9 Observations 10 Recommendations 12 CHAPTER 2 METHODS FOR SCREENING POLLUTANTS 14 Environmental Transport Estimates 15 General Consideration 15 Production and Uses 16 Rates of Emission 17 Verification of Estimates 18 Information Required 18 Critical Areas of Ignorance 18 Transport and Transformation in the Environment 20 Bioaccumulation 21 Assessing Time Scales 21 Directions of Transfer 22 Spatial Transport 23 Conclusion 23 xv

3 CASE TRANSURANIC SYNTHETIC SECTION II STUDIES 25 CHAPTER 3 ELEMENTS 27 Introduction 27 Chemical and Physical Characteristics 29 Toxicity 32 Sources 35 Weapons TestingFallout 35 Civilian Nuclear Power Generation 36 Ocean Dumping 41 Effluent Waste Disposal 42 Other Sources 44 Environmental Behavior 45 NonMarine 45 Marine 45 Overview 53 Literature Cited 54 CHAPTER 4 ORGANIC CHEMICALS 64 Low Molecular Weight Chlorinated Hydro carbons 65 Introduction 65 Physical Properties, Production, and Consumption 68 Tetrachloroethylene (Per) 68 Physical Properties 68 Production 69 Manufacturing Process 72 Consumption 73 1,1,1Trichloroethane (1,1,1TCE) 73 Physical Properties 73 Production 74 Manufacturing Process 76 Consumption 76 1,2Dichloroethane (EDC) 77 Physical Properties 77 Production 78 Manufacturing Process 78 Consumption 82 1,2Dichloropropane (PDC) 84 Physical Properties 84 Production 84 Consumption 84 General Chemical Properties and Reactions 86 Substitution Chlorination 87 Oxidation 87 xv i

4 Stability 88 Toxicity to Humans and Higher Animals 88 Routes of Entry into the Environment 90 Dispersive Uses 90 Production Losses 91 Dumping and Transportation Losses 91 Levels in the Environment 94 Fate in the Environment 100 Fate in the Atmosphere 100 Fate in Aqueous Environments 106 Evaporation Rate 106 Chemical Degradation 106 Biological Degradation 109 Fate in Soils 109 Effects on Ecosystems 110 Tentative Environmental for Perchloroethylene Overview Transport Model Literature Cited 123 Aromatic 132 Hydrocarbons Basic Chemical Properties and Uses 132 Benzene 132 Toluene 133 Production and Consumption 135 Coal Sources 135 Petroleum Sources 141 Imports and Exports Benzene Toluene 147 Biological Effects 153 Toxicity to Aquatic Organisms 153 Plants 154 Invertebrates 154 Vertebrates 155 Implied Effects 159 Biodegradation 160 Metabolism and Bioaccumulation 161 Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Atmosphere 162 Detection 162 Sources 162 Concentrations 163 Fate 164 Aromatics in Marine Waters 165 Detection 165 Sources 167 xvii

5 OCEAN METALLIC Concentrations 174 Aromatics in Sediments 175 Overview 175 Literature Cited 177 Hexachlorobenzene 188 Physical Properties 188 Production 188 Environmental Release 189 Containment 190 Persistence 190 Mobility 191 Bioaccumulation 191 Toxicity 192 Overview 202 Literature Cited 203 Acrylonitrile 209 Physical Properties 209 Reactions 210 Production 210 Manufacturing Process 213 Consumption 214 Toxicity to Humans and Animals 217 Toxicity to Aquatic Organisms 218 Biological Oxidation 218 Environmental Considerations 222 Overview 222 Literature Cited 224 CHAPTER 5 DISCHARGE 228 Introduction 228 Legal Bases 229 MidAtlantic Bight and Deep Ocean 231 Dredge Spoil and Municipal Sewage Sludge 231 Industrial Wastes 263 Other Wastes 265 Gulf of Mexico 267 Southern California Bight 280 Overview 289 Literature Cited 291 CHAPTER 6 WASTES 300 Introduction 300 Iron 302 General Properties 302 Atmospheric Levels 303 Freshwater Levels 304 xviii

6 Marine Levels 305 Sources of Iron to the Environment 306 Atmosphere 306 Iron and Steel Production 308 Cement Industry 312 Iron Stone, Sand, and Gravel 313 Municipal Waste Incineration 315 Summary of Atmospheric 315 Marine and Freshwaters 316 Titanium Dioxide (Ti02) Industry 316 Aluminum Industry 318 Sewage Effluents 319 Atmospheric Fallout 319 Acid Mine Drainage 320 Iron and Steel Industry 320 Fallout of Atmospheric Particulate Iron 321 Summary of Aquatic Iron Copper 321 General Properties Freshwater Concentrations 323 Marine Chemistry 323 Sources of Copper in the Environment Atmosphere 326 Copper Industry Summary of Atmospheric Copper 326 Marine and Freshwaters 330 Industry 330 Sewage Effluents 331 Atmospheric Fallout 332 Antifouling Paints 332 Overview Literature Summary of Aquatic Copper Cited CHAPTER 7 MEDICINAL WASTES 342 Tetracyclines Introduction Production Human Use Bacterial Resistance 354 Absorption and Excretion 355 xix

7 MARINE Agricultural Uses 357 Release to the Environment 357 Fish Culture Use 363 Environmental Effects 365 Overview 371 Literature Cited 372 Technetium99m 380 Introduction 380 Nuclear Properties 381 Uses 381 Production 383 Molybdenum Bombardment 383 Weapons Testing 383 Nuclear Reactors 383 Releases 386 USAEC Controlled 386 Nuclear Devices 386 Reactors Reprocessing Facilities 386 Loss to Soil 386 Loss to Rivers Oceans 391 Loss to Atmosphere 392 NonUSAEC Controlled 395 Overview 397 Literature Cited 400 CHAPTER 8 LITTER 405 Introduction 405 Sources 406 Rivers and Bays 406 Passenger Vessels 408 Merchant Shipping 411 Recreational Boating 413 Commercial Fishing 414 Military Activity 416 Oil Platforms and Drilling Rigs 418 Catastrophes 419 Total Estimates 419 Observations 423 Fates 423 Effects 423 Overview 430 Literature Cited 432 xx