Block AD-5 Marine Seismic Studies Initial Environmental Examination Myanmar

Transcription

1 Block AD-5 Marine Seismic Studies Initial Environmental Examination Myanmar

2 Quality Information Document: Reference: Prepared by: Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) for Offshore Seismic Studies for Block AD-5, Rakhine Basin, Myanmar KULD 15033A AECOM Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. Level 2, Suite 2A, Tower Block, Menara KLK No. 1 Jalan PJU 7/6 Mutiara Damansara Petaling Jaya, Selangor Malaysia Author(s): Reviewer(s): Date: 18 August 2015 Revision History Revision Issue Date Details Authorization for Issuance Name/Position Signature 0 25 August 2015 Willem De Jonge/ PD Disclaimer: This report is presented by AECOM Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. (AECOM), and has been prepared exclusively for the use of Woodside Energy (Myanmar) Pte Ltd (Woodside). AECOM will not be held responsible for the use of, or reliance on, this report by any third party. AECOM has applied due professional care in the preparation of this report; however the quality of information and conclusions contained herein are subject to the limitations of information available at the time of preparation, data supplied by third-party sources and any additional assumptions, limitations, conditions and qualifications provided in this report.

3 Executive Summary

4 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR INTRODUCTION Woodside (Myanmar) Pte Ltd (Woodside) intends to acquire a two dimensional (2D) marine seismic survey and a three dimensional (3D) marine seismic survey, as well as gravity and magnetic data and seabed samples (the Project), in Block AD-5 (AD-5), which is located offshore Myanmar in the Rakhine Basin in the Bay of Bengal (Figure 0-1). Woodside is the Operator of the block with equity interests of 55% together with BG Exploration & Production (Myanmar) Pte Ltd (BGEPM) with non-operating interests of 45%. The proposed Project activities are planned to be undertaken between November 2015 and April 2016, due to favourable weather and sea conditions for offshore surveys during the North-east Monsoon. In accordance with the draft Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure (EIAP) of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, this Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) is a report comprising a systematic assessment of the proposed activities. Woodside prepared this IEE for these activities for submission to the Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) and the Ministry of Environment, Conservation and Forestry (MOECAF). Woodside undertook a screening assessment whereby a Project Proposal was submitted to MOECAF in February 2015, and MOECAF then confirmed that the level of assessment for the proposed survey activities would be set at an IEE level. Subsequently, a series of stakeholder engagements were conducted at various levels. The purpose of the proposed surveys is to commence investigation the possible presence of hydrocarbons within AD-5. An initial geophysical investigation (Stage 1) is proposed to include 2D and 3D marine seismic acquisition, gravity and magnetic data acquisition, and seabed coring. Additional seismic surveying (Stage 2) may be undertaken if the results of Stage 1 deliver a business case to pursue additional seismic data acquisition. The activities would most likely include additional 3D marine seismic acquisition. The scope and timing of these activities relies on the evaluation of the Stage 1 results. The scope of this IEE report includes both the Stage 1 and Stage 2 activities. Possible future activities exploration drilling and development activities are not included in this IEE. Should the Stage 2 activities introduce any new significant environmental impact risk or significant increase in an existing environmental impact/risk not provided for in this document, Woodside will update and resubmit the document for re-assessment. Page ES-1

5 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Figure 0-1: Location of AD-5, Offshore Myanmar Page ES-2

6 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR PROJECT DESCRIPTION The Project will be undertaken within AD-5, which is located immediately off the coast of the Ayeyarwady Region, to the west of the townships of Labutta and Ngapudaw in the Village-tract of SinMa to the south of Pathein Township. Seismic acquisition and associated activities within AD-5 will take place from approximately 247kilometres (km) to approximately 94km off the west coast of the Ayeyarwady Region and about 100km to the westnorth-west of Thameehla Kyun (Diamond Island). The surveys will comprise an acquisition area of approximately 10,645 square kilometres (km 2 ), in water depths ranging from approximately 2,300m to 2,800m. The Project will comprise 2D marine seismic and 3D marine seismic data acquisition as well as gravity and magnetic data acquisition and seabed coring, and is expected to be conducted as multiple activities across both AD-5 and A-7 which is immediately to the east (Figure 0-1). Survey activities in A-7 are subject to a separate IEE process and are not included in this IEE. Due to the length of the towed streamers, the seismic vessels will require an additional turnaround zone approximately 8km wide outside of the blocks as shown in Figure 0-2, which depicts the extent of the Project operational area. The turning area allows for survey line run-outs, survey line turns and survey line run-ins and minimises the likelihood of streamer entanglement; however, no acquisition of data will be conducted in this zone. Project Schedule The 2D and 3D marine seismic survey (MSS) activities are expected to commence between mid-november and early December 2015, with approximately 35 days and 180 days of acquisition across A-7 and AD-5, respectively. The 3D MSS in AD-5 and A-7 will be followed by 2-D in A-7. Gravity and magnetic data will be acquired concurrently with seismic acquisition, utilising the same survey vessels. The seabed sampling is likely to commence in March 2016 after the majority of the 3D MSS has been completed. Page ES-3

7 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Figure 0-2: The Project Operational Area including Buffer Zone Marine Seismic Surveys Marine seismic surveys enable the mapping of subsurface geological formations and the identification of potential hydrocarbon deposits. The seismic surveys involve directing acoustic (sound) energy into the geology (rocks) under the seabed and measuring their reflection using specialised equipment towed by a purpose-built survey vessel as shown in Figure 0-3. The survey vessel tows long cables called streamers behind it at a set depth below the water surface. Sound receiving devices called hydrophones are attached to the streamers at specific intervals to measure the reflected sound. The sound source and streamers are usually towed at a depth of 5 20m below the water surface, and are towed at a speed of approximately 5 knots (8 9km/h), thus the vessel is constantly moving. The sound source generates intermittent acoustic pulses that are directed downwards to the seabed. These sound waves are reflected back upwards from the various layers of sediment and rock below the seabed, and are received by the hydrophones contained in the streamers being towed behind the survey vessel. Hydrophones convert the reflected pressure signals into electrical energy that is digitised and transmitted along the streamer to the recording system on board the survey vessel. A computerised analysis of these reflected sound waves generates images of the geology below the seabed, which enables an accurate identification of the location, extent and depth of possible hydrocarbon reserves below the seabed. Page ES-4

8 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Figure 0-3: Diagrammatic Overview of Seismic Survey Operations Reflected sound waves are received by hydrophones contained in the streamers Acoustic pulses are generated by the sound source Acoustic pulses reflect off the various rock layers below the seabed Source: Base image sourced from and reproduced courtesy of IPIECA Proposed 2D and 3D MSS The proposed 2D and 3D MSS are transient activities that do not require the construction of any facilities, structures or permanent features. The 2D MSS will use one streamer, approximately 10,000 to 12,000m in length, towed at 10m below the sea surface behind the seismic vessel (see Plate 0-1). The seismic source array will be located approximately 7m below the surface with single array configuration and a typical volume of 4,000 cubic inches (cui). Typical source outputs (sound pressure levels SPL) during the 2D MSS will be db re 1 μpa@ 1m (when measured relative to a reference pressure of one micropascal). In the 3D MSS, 10 to 12 streamers are towed behind the seismic vessel, together with dual acoustic sources. The streamers, each approximately 7,000m long, will be towed at 10m below the sea surface and 100m apart at their widest point at the end of the streamers. The 3D MSS is expected to use a dual acoustic array configuration with a typical volume of 4,000cui. A 3D survey gives a detailed 3D image of the subsurface geology. To complete each survey, the vessel with its towed streamer (2D) or streamers (3D) will complete a series of parallel survey lines. The survey lines are typically 4km apart in the case of the 2D MSS and typically 500m apart for the 3D MSS. Page ES-5

9 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Plate 0-1: 3D Survey Vessel and Towed Array Figure 0-4: Generic 3D MSS Equipment Configuration Page ES-6

10 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Gravity and Magnetic Data Acquisition Gravity and magnetic data is utilised in the oil and gas industry to assess the depth and nature of the seabed sediments. Acquisition equipment measures changes in density and magnetic intensity, and this allows maps to be created showing the lateral distribution of the various sediments. Gravity and magnetic data acquisition is proposed to be conducted as part of the 2D and 3D MSS in AD-5, with equipment and personnel working in conjunction with seismic operations to acquire the data simultaneously. Seabed Sampling In addition to the proposed seismic acquisition, Woodside will also undertake seabed sampling to characterise the seabed sediments. A separate vessel fitted with sampling equipment will be utilised to undertake the seabed sampling via non-drilling techniques. These cores will be analysed to provide additional information on the seabed. The seabed sampling survey will utilise a single dedicated survey vessel. Once retrieved, the cores will be removed from the core barrel and a preliminary analysis will take place on board the vessel, the cores will then be retained for more detailed laboratory analysis. The seabed sampling will take place at locations to be determined after the 3D seismic data has been analysed. All samples will be retained on the vessel and not discharged back to the ocean. Plate 0-2: Core Sampler equipment being deployed from the vessel Plate 0-3: Sample of the seabed sediments after recovery of the core sampler equipment to the vessel Project Vessels For the AD-5 2D and 3D MSS, the expected survey fleet will comprise of approximately six (6) to eight (8) vessels in total, including: Page ES-7

11 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Seismic vessel: a purpose-built vessel with accommodation for the survey crew and operating equipment. The vessel will tow the streamers and seismic source. The same vessel or separate seismic vessels will be utilised for the 2D and 3D MSS. Support vessel: the support vessel provides assistance to the seismic vessel during each of the survey activities. This includes maintaining a safe work area around the towed equipment (the safety zone), providing supplies when required for the seismic vessel, at sea refuelling, and assisting in emergency situations. Chase vessels: one or more chase boats will be used to clear acquisition lines of any debris, liaise with fishermen and ward off other vessels entering the safety zone around the survey vessel to maintain safe operating distances. A dedicated vessel is likely to be utilised for the seabed sampling. The vessels will operate 24 hours per day, 7 days a week throughout the survey periods. Project Logistics The seismic survey vessel is expected to remain offshore for the entire survey. Bunkering and resupply of the vessel will be conducted at sea by a support vessel. The survey contractor will utilise an existing onshore supply base, A specific port is yet to be determined; however, it is likely to be located outside of Myanmar. Crew changes for the seismic vessels utilised for the 2D and 3D MSS will be conducted offshore within the operational area or in the waters surrounding AD-5 and A-7, using the support vessels. In some instances, helicopters may be used to transfer personnel and equipment to and from the seismic vessels. Any helicopter flights during the 2D and 3D MSS will be operated from an airport in Myanmar, which has not been identified at this stage. Vessel Discharges and Waste Management Wastewater generated by the seismic and support/ chase vessels includes domestic and sanitary wastewater, deck and bilge water that will be treated and monitored aboard before discharge into the surrounding environment. These wastewater releases will strictly comply with MARPOL 73/78 Annex I requirements. A variety of non-hazardous solid wastes will be generated during the seismic survey such as glass, paper, plastic and wood. No solid wastes will be disposed of intentionally into the marine environment. All solid wastes will be collected and shipped to a shore. Vessels shall be operated in compliance with MARPOL regulations whereby the discharge of comminuted and disinfected sewage and food waste ground to particle size <25 millimetres (mm) is permitted >3 nautical miles (nm) from the nearest land. Hazardous wastes such as lubricants, filters, chemical containers and used equipment, will be stored and consolidated for disposal onshore. Page ES-8

12 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR BASELINE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS Physical Environment Weather and oceanographic conditions in the Bay of Bengal are dominated by the North-east Monsoon in the months from November through to April, and the South-west Monsoon from April through to September, the former being the period of calmest seas. The Block AD-5 operational area is located within the Rakhine Basin, on the eastern fringe of the Bay of Bengal and offshore from the western coast of Ayeyarwady Province, Myanmar. Adjacent offshore features to the basin include the Bay of Bengal and the associated Bengal Fan deposits to the west, the Ayeyarwady Delta and associated Moattama Offshore Basin to the south and the Andaman-Nicobar Trench and associated island arc to the south. The Rakhine Basin is approximately 850km in length and 200km in width. Water depths range from approximately 2,300m to 2,800m. Biological Environment The operational area for AD-5 is located at approximately 100km west-north-west of Diamond Island and about 95km from the nearest mainland of Myanmar. It is within a deep water zone where there are no coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass, estuarine or shoreline transition-zone habitats within the area of influence (AOl). This zone is relatively unproductive as compared with the coastal area due to lack of nutrients. The major habitat types include a low-productivity pelagic zone and deep water benthic ecosystems. It is believed that major taxa found in the pelagic zone are expected to be mobile or transient like oceanic shark, tuna and whale while the demersal communities are dominated by crab, prawn, shrimp, rays, skates and flatfish. There are 20 species of ocean seabirds currently identified as occurring in Myanmar waters. An additional 61 species of birds live in the coastal zone, although there is limited data on their use of the marine environment. The Project is not expected to have any impact on marine or coastal birdlife. There are two broad groups of marine mammals present in Myanmar waters cetaceans (whales and dolphins) and sirenians (dugongs and manatees). It is highly unlikely that any dugongs will be present in the operational area, given that their preferred habitat is seagrass meadows in shallow waters and the survey activities will take place in waters greater than 50m deep. There is limited detailed research into the presence and activities of cetaceans in the eastern Bay of Bengal, and data has been compiled based on information that is available from primary literature and historical records. There is evidence of the possible presence of approximately 32 species of cetaceans in Myanmar waters. These species are comprised of seven (7) baleen whales, five (5) beaked whales, three (3) large delphinds, 14 smaller delphinds and three (3) species of sperm whale. Cetacean range data is considered to be approximate due to limited information sources. Socio-economic Environment Fisheries Myanmar's marine fishing industry consists of three distinct fishing zones namely, onshore, inshore and offshore. The inshore area starts from the Low Water Mark to 10NM from shore in the Ayeyarwady Region. For offshore fisheries management, the Department of Fisheries has divided the Myanmar coastline into 140 fishing grounds of 30 by 30 nautical mile blocks by using latitude and longitude lines and has designated Page ES-9

13 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR four fishing areas Rakhine, Ayeyarwady, Mon and Tanintharyi. The AD-5 MSS will not interact with any coastal zone artisanal fishing activities. The operational area is located in the offshore fishery zone and encompasses fishing block B17 and part of blocks B11, B12, B13, B16 and B18. The operational area also includes known offshore tuna fishing grounds, with the western part of AD-5 overlapping one of these areas. Given that the survey vessels will operate in water depths deeper than 2,000, it is possible that fishing vessels targeting large pelagic fish species such as tuna and swordfish may be encountered. Marine Traffic Marine traffic off the coast of the Ayeyarwady Region is limited to regional traffic, mostly inshore, away from AD-5. A moderately busy shipping lane connects Chittagong port in Bangladesh to the Malacca Straits in Malaysia. AD-5 is coincident with this shipping lane in the east of the block and encounters with vessels during the proposed 2D and 3D MSS and associated activities in the operational area can be expected. The AD-5 area may also be utilised by coastal trading vessels travelling from Yangon and Kyaukpyhu. POTENTIAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION Methodology The environmental and social risk management methodology used in this IEE is based on Woodside s Risk Management Operating Standard. These standards are consistent with the AS/ISO Risk Management Principles. The risk management methodology provides a framework to demonstrate that the identified risks and impacts are reduced to as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP), and the acceptability of risks and impacts. Identification of Impacts Based on the project description, the potential impacts resulting from the proposed 2D and 3D MSS and associated activities in the AD-5 operational area can be categorised as. 1. Potential impacts related to the activities of the vessels: Physical presence: o o interference with shipping activities; and/or with commercial fisheries; collision with marine mammals and other protected marine species (such as turtles and whale sharks); o loss of towed seismic equipment resulting in physical damage to seabed substrates and habitats; and o introduction of invasive marine species. Atmospheric emissions: emissions primarily from fuel combustion on the seismic and support/chase vessels. Discharge to sea and solid wastes: sewage, grey water and food waste discharge, impact to the marine environment from incorrect handling and disposal of chemicals, solid and hazardous wastes. Page ES-10

14 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Generation of light: generation of artificial light aboard the vessels is necessary for safety reasons; however it can attract marine fauna close to the vessels. Accidental releases: spills of marine fuel oil (MFO) during at sea bunkering (refuelling), or resulting from vessel collisions, accidental releases of hazardous materials. 2. Potential impacts related to the 2D and 3D seismic acquisition activities: Underwater noise generated by the seismic sources (discharge of airguns throughout the operational area). 3. Impacts related to seabed sampling activities: Physical disturbance/damage to seabed sediments and benthic communities resulting from gravity coring. Summary of Environmental/Social Risk Assessment An environmental and social risk assessment of the 2D and 3D MSS and associated activities has been undertaken to understand and manage the environmental and social risks associated with the activities to a level that minimises impacts on the environment and meets the objectives of the proposed surveys. The risk assessment indicates that the potential impacts arising from the Project in AD-5 can be categorised as having Low residual risk levels. No residual risks were assessed as Medium, High or Severe. Table 0-1 below presents a summary of the assessed level of residual (post-mitigation) environmental and social risk associated with the Project. Mitigation Measures Table 0-2 summarises the key mitigation strategies and measures that Woodside and the geophysical contractor(s) will implement during the Project to ensure that potential impacts are either eliminated or reduced to levels that are ALARP and environmentally and socially acceptable. Page ES-11

15 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Table 0-1: Summary of Environmental/Social Risk Assessment for the Project, AD-5, Offshore Myanmar Residual Risk Rating Aspect Source of Risk Key Potential Environmental / Social Impacts Consequenc e Likelihood Residual Risk Planned (Routine) Activities Physical presence of project vessels Proximity of project vessels causing interference with or displacement of other vessels (commercial shipping, fishing) Short-term, isolated interference with/exclusion of commercial shipping and fishing vessels F 1 Low Routine noise emissions Generation of noise from project vessels and mechanical equipment during normal operations (excluding seismic survey equipment) Generation of noise from seismic survey equipment Temporary and minor behavioural and physiological disturbance (e.g. avoidance or attraction) to marine fauna Temporary and minor behavioural and physiological disturbance (e.g. avoidance of local area) to fauna Temporary and minor changes to the location of target species for fishing activities F 2 Low E 1 Low Routine atmospheric emissions Internal combustion engines on survey vessel, supply vessel(s) and machinery engines Reduced local air quality from atmospheric emissions Minor contribution to greenhouse gas emissions F 1 Low Routine discharges Discharge of bilge water, grey water, sewage and putrescible wastes from the survey and support vessels to the marine environment Localised and temporary reduction in water quality due to nutrient enrichment Localised and temporary adverse effect to marine biota in offshore waters F 0 Low Page ES-12

16 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Residual Risk Rating Aspect Source of Risk Key Potential Environmental / Social Impacts Consequenc e Likelihood Residual Risk Routine light generation Light spill from seismic, support and chase vessel Temporary and minor behavioural effect to fauna attracted to light (seabirds, turtles) F 0 Low Seabed sampling Gravity coring of seabed sediments Localised physical disturbance and impact to substrates and benthic communities F 0 Low Potential physical damage to submarine cables Unplanned Activities (Accidents/ Incidents) Hydrocarbon release to the marine environment during at sea refuelling, or from vessel collision Localised and minor temporary disruption to fauna such as oiling of marine mammals, reptiles and seabirds Unplanned discharges to the marine environment Accidental discharge of hydrocarbons/chemicals from seismic or support vessel deck activities and equipment (e.g. cranes and winches) Localised and temporary contamination of water which may lead to toxic effects on marine biota in offshore waters F 2 Low Accidental loss of solid hazardous or nonhazardous wastes to the marine environment Pollution and contamination of the environment and secondary impacts on marine fauna (e.g. ingestion or entanglement) F 1 Low Unplanned events associated with physical presence of project vessels Accidental collision between project vessels and migratory marine fauna Loss of seismic streamers and/or acoustic source Potential injury or fatality of an individual or a number of marine fauna with no threat to overall population viability Localised short-term damage of substrates and benthic communities in the immediate location of the dropped seismic streamers and/or acoustic source E 1 Low F 1 Low Page ES-13

17 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Residual Risk Rating Aspect Source of Risk Key Potential Environmental / Social Impacts Consequenc e Likelihood Residual Risk Introduction of invasive marine species associated with ballast water transfer Disturbance, damage, or alteration of the receiving natural ecosystem E 0 Low Transportation of invasive marine species via vessel hull, internal niches or in-water equipment Disturbance, damage, or alteration of the receiving natural ecosystem E 0 Low Page ES-14

18 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Table 0-2: Summary of Mitigation Measures for the Project, AD-5, Offshore Myanmar Aspect Planned (Routine) Activities Management Objectives/ Commitments Mitigation Strategies / Measures Physical presence of project vessels Minimise potential disruption to commercial fishing and to local and international shipping activities Timely advice to local fishermen concerning the survey activities Notifications to all known relevant fishery stakeholders including the Department of Fisheries and the various fishing associations, Fisheries Liaison Officer to participate in the survey and interact with local fishermen when necessary (Burmese Speaker); Issuance of Notice to Mariners; Maintenance of a Safety Zone around project vessel and all towed equipment; Establishment of a Communications Protocol Use of chase vessel(s) to liaise with approaching vessels and maintain the Safety Zone (MSS only) Crew to include at least one bilingual English/Burmese speaking member Implementation of a Community Grievance Mechanism to deal with any claims / complaints Adherence to the international convention concerning the interaction of vessels at sea (COLREGS) Maximizing efficiency of seismic surveys to reduce operation times, where possible; Standard maritime safety procedures will be followed including the appropriate navigational lighting and maintenance of radio contact with nearby vessel Routine noise emissions from acoustic source Minimise disruption to marine fauna, particularly mammals, fishes and turtles Appropriate maintenance of vessels and associated equipment. Maximizing efficiency of seismic surveys to reduce operation times, where possible; Pre-start search (30mins shallow water, 60mins deep water) (MSS only) Page ES-15

19 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Aspect Management Objectives/ Commitments Mitigation Strategies / Measures Marine Mammal Observer present (MSS only) All sightings recorded (MSS only)) Soft start (20mins) (MSS only) Prestart delay zones (500m of source) (MSS only) Routine atmospheric emissions Minimise impacts on air quality in operational area Comply with MARPOL73/78 Annex VI requirements specifically: Adequate maintenance of mechanical/motor systems (vessel operator to maintain maintenance and inspection log) Vessel to hold an International Air Pollution Prevention (IAPP) Certificate as appropriate to class Use of low sulphur fuel (sulphur content not to exceed 3.5% m/m) when it is available Practice segregation of waste - only appropriate non-hazardous wastes to be disposed in incinerator (wastes which cannot be safely incinerated are to be disposed of at a shore base) Routine discharges Minimise reduction of water quality in vicinity of vessels from discharge of sewage, grey water, putrescible and other wastes Comply with MARPOL requirements for waste management, e.g. sewage treatment unit, oil/water separator, macerator for biodegradable waste Vessel to obtain International Sewage Pollution Prevention (ISPP) certificate and International Oil Pollution Prevention (IOPP) certificate, as appropriate to vessel class The vessel will carry waste management plan providing procedure for minimizing, collecting, storing, processing and disposing of garbage waste inventories will be maintained Maintain waste log including waste type, quantity and disposal method Routine light generation Minimise light disturbance to marine fauna Lighting will be minimised to sources required for navigational and operational safety reasons. On-board operational lighting will be located and oriented in such a way to direct working light where it is needed, and minimise light spill to the marine environment. Page ES-16

20 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Aspect Management Objectives/ Commitments Mitigation Strategies / Measures Seabed sampling No damage to undersea utilities, for example submarine cables or pipelines Confirm locations of undersea utilities prior to any seabed sampling Aspect Management Objectives/ Commitments Mitigation Strategies / Measures Unplanned Activities (Accidents/ Incidents) Unplanned discharges to the marine environment Avoid fuel and oil spills Minimise the potential impacts of fuel and oil spills on the marine environment Surveys will take place in the period of calmest weather and seas in the Project operational area. Seismic vessels will be relatively slow moving approximately 4.5 knots. Notice to Mariners will be issued with the Myanmar ports authority to advise as many vessels as possible of the survey activities and timing. Survey vessels and chase boats with utilise radar and visual observation to track vessels in the area and where necessary advise of the activity by radio or hailed. Refuelling to commence during daylight and when sea conditions are appropriate as determined by the vessel master; Job hazard analysis (or equivalent) is undertaken in place and reviewed before each fuel transfer; Transfer hoses are fitted with dry-break couplings (or similar and checked for integrity); Spill response kits are maintained and located in close proximity to hydrocarbon bunkering areas to use to contain and recover deck spills; Bunkering operations will be manned with constant visual monitoring of gauges, hoses and fittings and sea surface; and Radio communications will be maintained between seismic and support vessel Page ES-17

21 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Aspect Management Objectives/ Commitments Mitigation Strategies / Measures In the event of any incidents which resulted in the release of hydrocarbon fuels to the marine environment, vessel Masters will enact a Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plans (SOPEP) Any significant fuel losses to the marine environment will be immediately reported to the relevant third-party authorities. Crew induction to include spill prevention, reporting and use of spill response equipment. Unplanned events associated with physical presence of project vessels Minimise likelihood of interactions with marine fauna Apply the procedures for vessel/marine fauna interactions as per IAGC/JNCC guidelines, these measures include: o Appropriate searches prior to start-up; soft start procedures; use of the Marine Mammal Observer (MMO) (MSS only) o Use of tail buoys designed to minimise turtle interaction (MSS only) o Any vessel or towed equipment interactions with marine fauna recorded and reported (MSS only) o Where possible, reduction in vessel speed if mammals sighted within 500m o Where possible, survey vessels will not approach closer than 100m for a cetacean (unless animals bow riding) o Training of personnel Minimise risk of bringing exotic and pest marine species into Bay of Bengal via ballast water exchange All Woodside-contracted vessels will comply with IMO Ballast Water requirements Vessels which have obtained their ballast water from an area outside of Bay of Bengal / Andaman Sea are not to discharge it within 50 nautical miles from land, or in water depths less than 200m Vessels to maintain record of ballast water uptake and discharge locations Note that freshwater ballast can be discharged Page ES-18

22 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Aspect Management Objectives/ Commitments Mitigation Strategies / Measures Minimise risk of bringing exotic and pest marine species into coastal waters via biofouling of hull and other niches Woodside s invasive marine species risk assessment process will be applied Page ES-19

23 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Acoustic Disturbance to Marine Fauna The response of marine fauna to seismic airgun noise will range from no effect to some behavioural changes. Immediate physical effects are likely only to occur at very short ranges and high sound intensities and will largely be unlikely to occur for the majority of species, as most free-swimming animals will practice avoidance manoeuvres well before they get within the ranges at which physical effects may occur. Animals that do not move away from the path of a seismic vessel because of behavioural or physical constraints, or which are caught unaware within a few hundred metres of an array when it starts up, will be most at risk of pathological effects. A behavioural response could occur within 2.0km in deep water and 6.1km in shallow water of the airgun source using the 160dB re 1µPa NMFS criteria.. Noise associated with airguns used during seismic surveys can cause behavioural changes in whales, including swimming away from the source, rapid swimming on the surface and breaching. The level of noise at which a response is elicited varies between species and even between individuals within a species. With regards to avoidance behaviour by baleen whales; it is known that baleen whales will avoid operating seismic vessels and the distance over which the avoidance occurs seems to be highly variable between species and even within species. It is considered that this avoidance behaviour represents only a minor effect on either the individual or the species population unless avoidance results in displacement of whales from nursery, resting or feeding areas, at an important period for the species. The AD-5 operational area and surrounding waters is not a known critical habitat for any cetacean species. For cetaceans, whale sharks and turtles that may be present in the operational area and surrounding waters during the survey periods, the implementation of the procedures based on the International Association of Geophysical Contractors (IAGC) Recommended Mitigation Measures For Cetaceans during Geophysical Operations and the United Kingdom Joint Nature Conservation Committee (UK JNCC) Guidelines for minimising the risk of injury and disturbance to marine mammals from seismic surveys, plus the implementation of specific vessel-marine fauna interaction procedures to minimise the risk of collision with the support and chase vessels, and the use of streamer tail buoys designed to minimise turtle interaction, will minimise the likelihood of negative impacts upon these individuals from survey activities. PUBLIC CONSULTATION AND INFORMATION DISCLOSURE Approach The public consultation for the Project in AD-5 offshore Myanmar aimed to achieve a consistent, comprehensive, coordinated and culturally appropriate approach. Principles employed for consultation included: Stakeholder identification, analysis and mapping; Information disclosure; Consultation and participation, and Feedback system. Stakeholders were identified at three levels Union (Country/National level), Regional (Ayeyarwady Region) and Local (Township and Village-tract levels). Stakeholder groups included Government, civil society and institutions and potentially affected people in local communities. Page ES-20

24 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR The consultation process was designed to align to the stages of an IEE, and involved three key phases: 1. Consultation for the IEE; 2. Baseline Data Gathering: conducted from 28 th March 2015 to 24 th June 2015, and 3. Disclosure of the IEE (to be completed within ten days after submission of the report to MOECAF). Outcomes of Consultation Some Union level Government departments highlighted the importance of following national regulations, verifying baseline data and community development needs. MOECAF provided details on the regulatory submission and approvals process. The Department of Fisheries (DoF) representatives highlighted that they do not want local fishers to be affected by the seismic surveys and that, if there were not any impacts, they would have no objections to the activities. They also advised that Woodside should gain the consent of local authorities before undertaking the surveys and to inform the DoF once the survey has been completed. Stakeholders from the Ayeyarwady Regional Government encouraged Woodside to continue to engage with the Regional Government and requested more details on project activities (e.g. vessel specifications). Environmental Conservation was highlighted as an important issue, and specifically water and air pollution issues were raised. It was also emphasised that Woodside should engage transparently and sensitively with local communities, particularly as there were existing sensitivities in local communities about previous development projects, resulting in local controversy due to nontransparent engagement. As per Myanmar regulations, this draft IEE will be made available for public comment.. The full report will be made available to the public in English and a non-technical summary will be made available in Burmese. The report will be disclosed to stakeholders by means of local media, at public meeting places and at Woodside s office in Yangon. Page ES-21

25 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Plate 0-4: Disclosure of Project Activities, Ywar Thit Village-tract (29/03/2015) Plate 0-5: Disclosure of Project Activities, Thae Phyu Village-tract (31/03/2015) Page ES-22

26 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT PLAN Overview A Project-specific Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) has been prepared for the proposed marine seismic surveys and associated activities in AD-5. The ESMP aims to provide an environmental and social management framework by outlining the compliance requirements, mitigation measures and monitoring programmes to be undertaken throughout the marine seismic surveys and associated activities. The ESMP has been prepared based on the findings of this IEE and describes management measures designed to mitigate potential environmental and social impacts of the proposed marine seismic surveys and associated to levels that are considered to be ALARP and acceptable. The overarching purpose of the ESMP is to: Integrate management and mitigation measures into the Project activities in order to reduce or mitigate any potential adverse impacts on natural and socio-economic environments. Consider and address the concerns and interests of stakeholders who will potentially be engaged or impacted during execution of the marine seismic surveys. Establish systems and processes for delivery and implementation of the Project environmental and social requirements in order to meet statutory and compliance standards. Stakeholder Engagement and Communications Plan The Stakeholder Engagement and Communications Plan details plans for the continued engagement and notification of the proposed activities with local coastal communities, fishers and key stakeholders prior to, during and after the surveys are completed. The Plan contains actions and protocols that satisfy management requirements of both the Social Management Plan and ongoing stakeholder engagement requirements. The Plan will be regularly revisited, updated and improved over the life of the Project as more information is gained about stakeholders and their needs. As part of this Plan, a Community Grievance Mechanism will be established and communicated. Roles and Responsibilities The ESMP describes the key roles and responsibilities for all personnel (Woodside and contractors; onshore and offshore) who will be involved in the Project. Monitoring, Record Keeping and Reporting The ESMP details all of the monitoring, record keeping and reporting requirements for the 2D and 3D MSS and associated activities in the AD-5 operational area. Auditing and Review Environmental performance auditing will be undertaken to confirm that all significant environmental and social aspects of the seismic survey activity are covered by the ESMP. It will also confirm that the Page ES-23

27 OFFSHORE SEISMIC STUDIES FOR AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR standards to achieve environmental and social performance are being implemented and identify opportunities for continuous improvement and potential non-conformances. Emergency Response Project-specific Emergency Response Plans (ERP) will be developed by the survey contractors and submitted to Woodside for review and approval prior to commencement of the surveys. All vessels (seismic, support and chase vessels) involved in the Project will have onboard equipment for responding to emergencies, including but not limited to medical and firefighting equipment, and spill response equipment. CONCLUSIONS With the control and mitigation measures that will be employed, the environmental and social impacts of the proposed Project in AD-5, offshore Myanmar, are expected to be localised and temporary. Overall, the proposed 2D and 3D MSS, gravity and magnetic data acquisition, and seabed sampling are not expected to have any long-term effects on local or regional biodiversity. The data acquisition will not adversely impact ecosystem structure and function, for any of the key environmental and social sensitivities and values identified for the marine environment of the operational area and surrounding waters. The characteristics of the activities, particularly their relatively short duration and separation (temporal and/or spatial) from sensitive environmental and social resources, mitigate many of the potential environmental and social effects of the Project. The risk assessment indicates that, with appropriate management, the residual environmental and social impacts associated with the proposed Project are all ranked Low, are ALARP and acceptable. There are no High, Medium or Severe ranked environmental and social impacts associated with the Project. This IEE describes the potential environmental and social impacts associated with the proposed Project in AD-5, offshore Myanmar. The environmental and social impacts arising from the Project will not have any significant negative effects on the environment during and after the proposed activities. This outcome will be assured, by the implementation of the management and mitigation measures described in this IEE (i.e. in the ESMP). Page ES-24

28 Table of Contents

29 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION Project Background Project Location Scope and Objective Objectives of Initial Environmental Examination Guidelines for Initital Environmental Examination Contents of this IEE Report POLICY, LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK National Constitution Environmental Legislation and Regulatory Procedures Environmental Regulatory Agencies Engagement with Government Agencies Environmental Laws and Policies of Myanmar Pertaining to the Project Myanmar EIA Procedure International Agreements and Conventions Relevant International Standards and Guidelines Guidelines for Management of Underwater Sound DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT S IEE PROCESS IEE Study Team Environmental and Social Assessment Methodology Screening IEE Study PROJECT DESCRIPTION Project Proponent Survey Location Survey Schedule Seismic Acquisition Equipment Survey Fleet Acoustic Source Streamers General Description of Marine Seismic Survey Activities Survey Patterns Application of a Safety Zone Description of the Proposed 2D Marine Seismic Survey Description of the Proposed 3D Marine Seismic Survey Page i

30 4.8 Description of Other Surveys Gravity and Magnetic Data Acquisition Seabed Coring Emissions, Discharges and Waste Management DESCRIPTION OF THE EXISTING ENVIRONMENT Introduction Regional Context Physical Environmental Setting Meteorology Natural Hazards of Coastal Areas of Myanmar Oceanography and Hydrography Geology and Sediments Air Quality Noise Marine Water Quality Ecological Conditions Conditions Specific to Block AD Bathymetry, Geology and Sediments Current Socio-economic Conditions Port Infrastructure and Marine Traffic Marine Traffic POTENTIAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION Environmental and Social Risk Assessment Methodology Establish Context Risk Identification Developing Mitigation Measures Cyumulative Impacts Risk Analysis Physical Presence of Project Vessels and Towed Equipment Potential Impacts Potential Impact of Routine Noise Emissions from a Seismic Survey The Characteristics of Sound Propagation in the Sea General Potential Impacts of Seismic Sound on Marine Biota Marine Mammals Acoustic Thresholds and Frequency Weighting Functions Marine Mammals Behavioural Exposure Criteria Selection Fish, Sea Turtles, Plankton, Eggs and Larvae Acoustic Thresholds Sea Turtle Behavioural Exposure Criteria Selection Page ii

31 6.3.7 Predicted Sound Propagation from the AD-5 Marine Seismic Survey Projected Potential Impacts Mitigation Measures and Operational Guidelines Potential Impact on Air Quality Exhaust Emissions Greenhouse Gas Emissions Impact on Benthos and Sediments Potential Impacts Residual Risk to Benthos from Seabed Coring The Potential Introduction of Invasive Marine Species Potential Impacts Mitigation Risk from Introduction of Marine Invasive Species Routine Waste Discharges Discharge of Bilge Water, Grey Water, Sewage and Putrescible Wastes Potential Impacts of Night Lighting Lighting of the Vessels Potential Impacts Potential for Spills and Fuel Losses at Sea Potential Impacts Interaction with Undersea Marine Services Cumulative Impacts Potential Cumulative Acoustic Impacts PUBLIC CONSULTATION AND INFORMATION DISCLOSURE Introduction Approach to Consultation Outcomes of Consultation Summary of Feedback ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT PLAN Introduction Scope of the ESMP Purpose and Objectives of ESMP Woodside Management System Legislation and Guidelines Environmental Management Plan Social Management Plan Livelihoods Protection Community Safety and Security Page iii

32 8.7.3 Stakeholder Engagement and Communications Plan Community Grievance Mechanism Procedure Roles and Responsibilities Woodside s Role Environmental Training Monitoring, Record Keeping and Reporting ESMP Contractor Management and Monitoring Reporting Incident Reporting Monthly Reports MMO Final Report Auditing and Review Emergency Response Page iv

33 LIST OF TABLES Table 2-1 Myanmar Environmental and Socio-economic Legislation and Policies Applicable to the Proposed Project Table 2-2 International Agreements and Conventions Relevant to the Proposed Project Table 2-3 International Standards and Guidelines Relevant to the Proposed Project Table 3-1 Key Members of the IEE Study Team Table 4-1 Joint Venture Composition for all Woodside Myanmar Blocks Table 4-2 Indicative Parameters for Survey Fleet Table 4-3 Indicative Characteristics of AD-5 2D Seismic Survey Table 4-4 Indicative Characteristics of AD-5 3D Seismic Survey Table 5-1 Details of Pathein Meteorological Station Table 5-2 Average Temperatures Recorded in the Pathein District ( ) Table 5-3 Monthly Average Rainfall Recorded in the Pathein District ( ) Table 5-4 Probable Earthquake and Tsunami Hazards along the Myanmar Coastal Areas Table 5-5 Concentrations of Chlorophyll-a (mg/m 3 ) for Stations 13 to 15 Observed at Various Depths Table 5-6 IUCN Red List Categories Table 5-7 Seabirds of Myanmar Table 5-8 Records of Cetaceans and Cetacean Ranges in Bay of Bengal and Eastern Bay of Bengal Waters with Reference Sources Indicated IUCN Cat. Abbreviations refer to IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Categories Table 5-9 Administrative Structure Table 5-10 Total Estimated Population and Number of Households by Township Table 5-11 Total Estimated Population and Number of Households by Village-tracts Table 5-12 Household Dependency on Fisheries Table 5-13 Types of Secondary Industries Table 5-14 Major Cultural Groups by Village-tract Table 6-1 Woodside s Operational Likelihood Table Table 6-2 Woodside s Residual Risk Level Matrix Table 6-3 ENVID Matrix for Seismic Survey of Block AD Table 6-4 Known Sound Sensitivities of Selected Marine Mammals Table 6-5 Table 6-6 Table 6-7 Table 6-8 Marine Mammal Functional Hearing Groups, Auditory Bandwidth (Estimated Lower to Upper Frequency Hearing Cut-off) and Genera Represented in Each Group Peak SPL and SEL Dual Thresholds for Acoustic Airgun Effects on Fish, Sea Turtles, Fish Eggs and Fish Larvae Horizontal Source Level Specifications (10 2,000 Hz) for the Seismic Airgun Array (4,000 cui) at 7 m Depth Horizontal Distances (in metres) from the Source to Injury and Behavioural Thresholds, 4,000 cui Airgun Array in 2,000 m of Water # Depth Page v

34 Table 6-9 Table 6-10 Maximum Horizontal Distances (in metres) from the Source to Modelled Impact Criteria for Fish, Sea Turtles, Fish Eggs, and Fish Larvae, 2,000m Water Depth # Maximum Horizontal Distances (in metres) from the Source to Modelled 100 m Depth rms SPLs for Behavioral Response for Sea Turtles, 2,000m Water Depth # Table 6-11 Specific Emission Rates of CO 2 for Various Shipping Fuels Table 6-12 Greenhouse Gas Calculation Table 6-13 Selection of Wastes and Their Associated Potential Impacts Table 6-14 Overview of the Adjacent Blocks to AD-5 and Concurrent Seismic Activities Table 7-1 Summary of Consultation undertaken for the IEE (29/01/2015 to 24/06/2015) Table 8-1 Environmental Management Plan Table 8-2 Stakeholder Engagement and Communications Plan for the Project Table 8-3 Responsibilities of Key Roles Table 8-4 Monitoring and Record Keeping Page vi

35 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1 Location of Block AD-5, Offshore Myanmar Figure 1-2 The Project Operational Area including Buffer Zone Figure 1-3 Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure Flowchart Figure 2-1 Overview of the Draft EIA Procedure in Myanmar Figure 4-1 Woodside s Blocks in Myanmar Figure 4-2 Overview of Survey Location with Indicative Survey Areas Figure 4-3 The Project Operational Area including Buffer Zone Figure 4-4 Air Gun Schematic Figure 4-5 Diagrammatic Overview of Seismic Survey Operations Figure 4-6 Generic 3D MSS Equipment Configuration Figure 4-7 Schematic View of a Racecourse Pattern in a Survey Segment Figure 5-1 Project Operational Area Location Map Figure 5-2 Main River Systems and Coastal Regions in Myanmar Figure 5-3 Average Temperatures in Pathein Figure 5-4 Rainfall Map of Myanmar with Monthly Distribution Patterns for Selected Locations 5-6 Figure 5-5 Rainfall in Pathein Figure 5-6 Tsunami Risk in the Bay of Bengal Figure 5-7 Myanmar Offshore Basins Figure 5-8 Bathymetric Profile of the Central West Burma Scarp (WBS) Figure 5-9 Regional Geology of Myanmar Figure 5-10 Wenz Curves Describing Pressure Spectral Density Levels of Marine Ambient Noise from Weather, Wind, Geologic Activity, and Commercial Shipping Figure 5-11 Chlorophyll Sampling Stations in the Bay of Bengal Figure 5-12 Figure 5-13 Schematic Cross-section of Ocean Bathymetry from Shoreline to Beyond the Continental Shelf Showing Categories Types Used to Summarise Species Habitat Associations Seismic Profiles of the WBS along ANDA50 and ANDA52 between 15º45 N and 16º30 N Figure 5-14 Map of Administrative Districts of Ayeyarwady and Adjacent Regions Figure 5-15 Village Distribution Map Figure 5-16 Fishing Grounds in Myanmar Figure 5-17 Tuna and Swordfish Fishing Grounds Figure 5-18 Secondary Support Industries Map Figure 5-19 Locations of Culturally Sensitive Sites (Islands and Outcrops) Figure 5-20 International Ports in Myanmar Figure 5-21 Marine Traffic in the Bay of Bengal Figure 6-1 Key Steps in Woodside s Risk Management Framework Figure 6-2 Characteristics of Sound Waves Page vii

36 Figure 6-3 Decision Making Flowchart for Airgun Start up and Shutdown Figure 6-4 Schematic Map of the SeaMeWe-5 Submarine Cable Source Figure 6-5 Myanmar Rakhine Basin Offshore Blocks Figure 7-1 Stakeholder Groups for the Project Figure 8-1 Woodside s Grievance Mechanism in Myanmar Page viii

37 LIST OF PLATES Plate 4-1 Acoustic Source Array Plate 4-2 3D Survey Vessel and Towed Array Plate 4-3 Core Sampler equipment being deployed from the vessel Plate 4-4 Sample of the seabed sediments after recovery of the core sampler equipment to the vessel Plate 5-1 Images of Elasmobranchs and Fishes Plate 5-2 Images of Marine Turtles Plate 5-3 Images of Seabirds Plate 5-4 Images of Marine Mammals Plate 5-5 Examples of Fishing Methods Plate 7-1 Disclosure of Project Activities, Ywar Thit Village-tract (29/03/2015) Plate 7-2 Disclosure of Project Activities, Thae Phyu Village-tract (31/03/2015) Page ix

38 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Advertisements of National Notification of the IEE Studies Woodside HSE and Sustainable Communities Policies Impact of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Stakeholder Engagement Plan Page x

39 ACRONYMS - AASM: Airgun Array Source Model - ADCP: Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler - ALARP: As Low As Reasonably Practicable - ALGAS: Asia Least Cost Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy ANSI: American National Standards Institute - AOI: Area of Influence - ASPIC: A Stock Production Model Incorporating Covariates - BGEPM: BG Exploration & Production (Myanmar) Pte Ltd - CBO: Community Based Organisation - CH 4 : Methane - CLO: Community Liaison Officer - CO 2 : Carbon Dioxide - COLREG: Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, CSR: Corporate Social Responsibility - db: decibels - DG: Director General - DMA: Department of Marine Administration - DoF: Department of Fisheries - DTAG: Digital Acoustic Recording Tag - ECC: Environmental Compliance Certificate - ECD: Environmental Conservation Department - ECL: Environmental Conservation Law ECR: Environmental Conservation Rules, EEZ: Economic Exclusion Zone - EHS: Environment, Health and Safety - EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment - EIAP - Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure - EMP: Environmental Management Plan - ENVID: Environmental impacts identification - ERC: Emergency Response Coordinator - ERP: Emergency Response Plan - ESMP: Environmental and Social Management Plan - E Guard: E Guard Environmental Services Co., Ltd. Page xi

40 - GHG: Greenhouse gas - GIIP: Good International Industry Practice - HFC: High-frequency cetaceans - HSE: Health, Safety and Environment - IAGC: International Association of Geophysical Contractors - IAPP: International Air Pollution Prevention - ICPC: International Cable Protection Committee - IEE: Initial Environmental Examination - IFC: International Finance Corporation - IMO: International Maritime Organization - IMS: Invasive Marine Species - IOPP: International Oil Pollution Prevention - IPIECA: International Petroleum Industry Environment and Conservation Association - ISPP: International Sewage Pollution Prevention - ITCZ: Inter Tropical Convergence Zone - IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature - JNCC: Joint Nature Conservation Commission - JSA: Job Safety Assessments - LAT: Lowest Astronomical Tide - LC: Least Concern - LFC: Low-frequency cetaceans - LNG: Liquefied Natural Gas - LOA: Length overall - LSFO: Low Sulphur Fuel Oil - MAPDRR: Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction - MARPOL: International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, MBACI: Multiple Before/After Control Impact - MD: Managing Director - MFC: Mid-frequency cetaceans - MGO: Marine Gas Oil - MIC: Myanmar Investment Commission - MMO: Marine Mammal Observers - MOE: Ministry of Energy - MOECAF: Ministry of Environment, Conservation and Forestry - MOGE: Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise Page xii

41 - MoHA: Ministry of Home Affair - MoHT: Ministry of Hotels and Tourism - MOE: Ministry of Energy - MPRL: Myanmar Petroleum Resources Limited E&P Pte. Ltd - MPEP: Myanmar Petroleum Exploration & Production Co. Ltd - MSDS: Material Safety Data Sheets - MSS: Marine Seismic Survey - NCEA: National Commission for Environmental Affairs - NGO: Non-governmental Organisation - NIO: North Indian Ocean - NMFS: US National Marine Fisheries Service - NO 2 : Nitrogen Dioxide - NOx: Oxides of Nitrogen - NRC: National Research Council - NSF: US National Science Foundation - NSDS: National Sustainable Development Strategy - NT: near threatened - NTM: Notice to Mariners - OMZ: Oxygen Minimum Zone - P ref:: Standard reference Pressure - Pa: Pascal - PAP: Project Affected Persons - PEIS: Programmatic Environment Impact Statement - PSC: Production Sharing Contract - PSU: Practical Salinity Unit - PTS: permanent threshold shift - RFO: Residual Fuel Oil - RS: Richter Scale - rms: root mean square - SEAFDEC: Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center - SEL: Sound Exposure Level - SEP: Stakeholder Engagement Plan - SERP: Site Emergency Response Plan - SMP: Social Management Plan - SOLAS: International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1974 Page xiii

42 - SOPEP: Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plan - SOx: Oxides of Sulphur - SPL: sound pressure levels - SRDs: Streamer Recovery Devices - SST: Sea Surface Temperatures - STCW: International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watch-keeping for Seafarers, TTS: temporary threshold shift - UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNEP: United Nations Environment Program - USA: United States of America - USBL: Ultra Short Baseline - VOC: Volatile Organic Carbon - WBS: West Burma Scarp - WMS: Woodside Management System - Woodside: Woodside Energy (Myanmar) Pte Ltd Page xiv

43 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Project Background The Government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar is developing oil and gas opportunities in the Rakhine Basin in the Bay of Bengal. In March 2014, Myanmar s Ministry of Energy (MOE), through its 100% State-owned entity Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) awarded exploration rights to Woodside (Myanmar) Pte Ltd (Woodside) and BG Exploration and Production Myanmar Pte Ltd for the deep-water Block AD-5 (hereinafter referred to as AD-5) offshore Myanmar as part of the 2013 offshore licensing round. On 20 March 2015, Woodside signed the production sharing contract (PSC) with the MOGE under the MOE. Woodside is the Operator of the block with equity interests of 55% together with BG Exploration & Production (Myanmar) Pte Ltd (BGEPM) with non-operating interests of 45%. Woodside intends to acquire two dimensional (2D) and three dimensional (3D) marine seismic data as well as gravity and magnetic data and seabed cores in AD-5. Woodside prepared this Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) for these activities for submission to MOGE and the Ministry of Environment, Conservation and Forestry (MOECAF). Prior to this, Woodside undertook a screening assessment whereby a Project Proposal was submitted to MOECAF in February Following that, MOECAF confirmed that the level of assessment for the proposed survey activities would be set at an IEE. A series of stakeholder engagements were conducted at various levels. The IEE process is described in Chapter 3 of this IEE. The proposed activities are planned to be undertaken from November 2015 to the end of April 2016 which is the time of year with the most favourable weather for offshore surveys Project Location The proposed survey activity will be undertaken in AD-5 which is located in the waters to the west of the Ayeyarwady Region as shown in Figure 1-1. AD-5 covers an area of approximately 10,645 square kilometres (km 2 ) with depths ranging from 2,300 metres (m) to 2,800m. The nearest townships are Pathein, Ngapudaw and Labutta. The nearest marine park, Diamond Island, lies approximately 100km to the south-east Scope and Objective The purpose of the proposed surveys is to commence investigation for the possible presence of hydrocarbons within AD-5. This IEE covers activities in AD-5 only and does not include A-7, which is subject to a separate IEE. An initial geophysical survey (Stage 1) is proposed to include 2D and 3D marine seismic acquisition, gravity and magnetic data acquisition, and seabed coring. Additional seismic surveying (Stage 2) may be undertaken if the results of Stage 1 deliver a business case to pursue additional seismic data acquisition. The activities would most likely include additional 3D marine seismic acquisition. The scope and timing of these activities relies on the evaluation of the Stage 1 results. Should the Stage 2 activities introduce any new significant environmental impact risk or significant increase in an existing environmental impact/risk not provided for in this document, Woodside will update and resubmit the document for re-assessment. The scope of this IEE report includes both the Stage 1 and Stage 2 activities. Possible future exploration drilling and development activities are not included in this IEE. Page 1-1

44 A more detailed description of the proposed marine seismic survey activities is provided in Chapter 4. Figure 1-1: Location of AD-5, Offshore Myanmar 1.2 Objectives of Initial Environmental Examination In accordance with the Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure (EIAP) of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, the IEE is a report comprising a systematic assessment of the proposed activities. It is prepared to aid in the determination of whether or not such an activity or project has the potential to significantly affect the environment, humans and other living things, including socio-economic impacts, and to support a decision whether such an activity or project should be permitted. Page 1-2

45 Figure 1-2: The Project Operational Area including Buffer Zone Page 1-3

46 1.3 Guidelines for Initial Environmental Examination Myanmar has an EIAP that is currently in draft form. The guidelines of the Environmental Conservation Department (ECD) for the EIAP require that the proponent submit a Project Proposal that encompasses pertinent data and information at an appropriate level of detail and scope required for the project. Refer to Figure 1-3 for an overview of the process. The Project Proposal shall be appraised by MOECAF within 15 days to decide whether the proponent shall be required to submit an IEE or EIA report, or neither. Woodside submitted the project proposal in February 2015 and received an IEE level of assessment. The proponent shall select environmental experts who should be registered with MOECAF. The expert team shall conduct the following activities: Disclose information about the project; Conduct environmental and social assessment studies and investigations; Undertake consultations with Project Affected Persons (PAPs), local communities, local authorities, civil society and community based organisations. Once the investigations are completed, a report has to be prepared and submitted to MOECAF for review. In the event that the draft EIAP is passed into law, the review process (as outlined in the draft EIAP) shall include the following: Public disclosure of the IEE report on the company website; A call for comments from government, PAPs, civil society, and other stakeholders; Public consultation at a local level; and Collection and review of all comments that are received. The IEE report shall be revised to respond to the public comments and suggestions. The IEE report shall be reviewed by MOECAF within 60 days from the date of submission. If the IEE report is approved, an Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC) will be issued. 1.4 Contents of this IEE Report The environmental assessment for the proposed survey activities in Block AD-5 has been presented sequentially in this report in chapters as follows: Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 Policy, Legal and Administrative Framework Chapter 3 Description of the Project s IEE Process Chapter 4 Project Description Chapter 5 Description of the Existing Environment Chapter 6 Potential Impacts and Mitigation Chapter 7 Public Consultation and Information Disclosure Chapter 8 Environmental and Social Management Plan Page 1-4

47 Figure 1-3: Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure Flowchart Source: Draft Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure, Page 1-5

48 2 POLICY, LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK 2.1 National Constitution The Republic of the Union of Myanmar has established a regime of environmental protection. The overriding law is the Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar Under Article 45, the Constitution requires the Government of Myanmar to protect and conserve the natural environment. Article 390 implies a duty of every citizen of Myanmar to protect the natural environment. 2.2 Environmental Legislation and Regulatory Procedures In 2012, Myanmar enacted its Environmental Conservation Law 2012 (ECL). The ECL includes provisions for the establishment of overarching controls for pollution, urban development and related matters. In 2014, the Government of Myanmar passed the Environmental Conservation Rules 2014 (ECR). Rule 66 states that the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry (MOECAF) may enable and carry out an environmental impact assessment system. Under the system, MOECAF may also cause to carry out an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) or an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), and may determine which activities will require either form of environmental reporting. The process for the undertaking and preparation of an IEE and EIA is contained in the draft Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure (EIAP) and guidelines that are currently in the process of undergoing approval by the Government. At the time of writing it was understood that these are were before Cabinet. The Environmental Conservation Department (ECD) is specifically responsible for implementing the ECL, the ECR, the National Environmental Policy, as well as the strategy, framework, planning and action plan for the integration of environmental considerations into the National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS). 2.3 Environmental Regulatory Agencies The Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry (MOECAF) is the relevant Ministry that is responsible for environmental management within Myanmar. MOECAF was the new name given to the Ministry of Forestry in 2011 and the Environmental Conservation Department was constituted within MOECAF in Page 2-1

49 2.4 Engagement with Government Agencies Woodside has engaged with the Ayeyarwaddy Regional Government and several Union Ministries of the Government of Myanmar in relation to the proposed offshore seismic survey activities: Myanmar Investment Commission (MIC); Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rural Development; Ministry of Home Affair (MoHA); Ministry of Energy (MOE); MOGE; and MOECAF. 2.5 Environmental Laws and Policies of Myanmar Pertaining to the Project The ECL is comprehensive legislation, and is supported by the ECR and, when gazetted, the EIAP. In addition to the ECL, ECR and EIAP, there are a number of discrete laws relating to oil and gas exploration in the Union of Myanmar. Table 2-1 summarises Myanmar s environmental legislation that is relevant to the proposed survey activities in AD-5. Table 2-1: Myanmar Environmental and Socio-economic Legislation and Policies Applicable to the Proposed Project Legislation/ Policy Description The ECL encompasses: the rights and responsibilities of MOECAF, environmental standards, environmental conservation, management in urban areas, conservation of natural and cultural resources, process for businesses to apply for permission to engage in an enterprise that has the potential to damage the environment, prohibitions, offenses and punishments. In relation to this project, a Project Proponent shall: Environmental Conservation Law 2012 (The Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No. 9/ 2012) and Environmental Conservation Rules 2014 have responsibility to carry out by contributing the stipulated cash or kind in the relevant combined scheme for the environmental conservation including the management and treatment of waste including liquid, emission, solid (see Article 16(a) of the ECL); contribute the stipulated user charges or management fees for environmental conservation in accordance with Article 16(b) of the ECL; comply with the directives issued for environmental conservation in accordance with Article 16(c) of the ECL; prepare an environment impact assessment report (or in this case, an IEE) including Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) and submit to the Ministry (see generally, Article 55(a) of the ECR); and Page 2-2

50 Legislation/ Policy Description implement and carry out environmental management planning within the time stipulated by the Ministry and submit the performance audit to the Ministry (see Article 55(b) of the ECR). EIA Procedure (in draft) The Oil Fields Act 1918 The Petroleum Act 1934 (The State Peace and Development Council Law No. 33/ 2010) Territorial Sea and Maritime Zones Law 1977 (Law No. 3) The Myanmar Marine Fisheries Law (The State Law and Order Restoration Council Law No. 9/94) Protection of Wildlife and Conservation of Natural Area Law 1994 (and associated rules of 2002) (The State Law and Order Restoration Council Law No. 6/94) The EIAP stipulate the procedures for completing an IEE and/or EIA in Myanmar including project categorisation, responsibilities of project developers, responsibilities of ministries, and procedures for EIA review, among other issues. The draft EIA Procedures are to be finalised in This Act provides clarification on activities within the oil and gas industry, and provides the Government of Myanmar with the power to define and alter limits of any notified oilfield. In addition, the Government may make rules for regulating all matters connected with the many activities related to the extraction of oil and/or gas. The Act also provides guidance for matters such as preventing oil and gas wastes, reporting of fires, accidents and other occurrences and for regulating the collection and disposal of both oil and gas. The Petroleum Act regulates the production, storage and transport of oil so as not to cause pollution and fire. The Union of The Republic of Myanmar has exclusive jurisdiction over the construction, maintenance and operation of offshore terminals and to preserve and protect the marine environment, and to prevent and control marine pollution. This law places restrictions on marine fisheries and makes provision for punitive measures for non-compliance. The relevance of this law to the Woodside project is that it places limits on pollution: No person shall dispose of living aquatic creatures or any material into the Myanmar Marine Fisheries Waters to cause pollution of water or to harass fishes and other marine organisms. This Law sets out a framework for: wildlife protection, conservation of natural areas, protection and conservation of wildlife ecosystems and migratory birds and to protect endangered species and their natural habitats. It also outlines the penalties for causing water and air pollution, causing damage to a water-course or putting poison in the water in a natural area, and possessing or disposing of pollutants or mineral pollutants in a natural area. Page 2-3

51 Legislation/ Policy The Law Amending the Ports Act 2008 (The State Peace and Development Council Law No. 5/2008) Description Sub section 2 of Section 21 states that: Any person who by himself or another so casts or throws any ballast or rubbish or any such other thing or so discharges any oil or water mixed with oil, or the master of any vessel from which the same is so cast, thrown or discharged, shall be punishable with a fine not exceeding fifty thousand Kyats, and shall pay any reasonable expenses which may be incurred in removing the same. The objectives of this law are: Prevention from Danger of Chemical and Associated Material Law (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No 28/2013) to prevent damage to environmental resources and living organisms due to chemicals and associated materials; to provide for the systematic control of businesses using chemicals and associated materials in accordance with government approvals; to carry out data gathering and to undertake education and research regarding the safe and systematic utilization of chemicals and associated materials; and to achieve continuous improvements in worksite safety, health and environmental conservation. Foreign Investment Law 2012 (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No 21/2012) The Burma Wild Life Protection Act 1936 and The Burma Wild Life Protection Rules 1941 (Burma Act No. VII of 1936.) The Protection and Preservation of Cultural Heritage Region Law 1998 (The State Peace and Development Council Law No. 9/98) National Environment Policy 1994 The Conservation of Water Resources and Rivers Law 2006 (The State Peace and Development Council Law No. 8/2006) The Rules provide further guidance on the new FIL by expanding upon the rights and duties of foreign investors under the new FIL, as well as clarifying the types of activities for which foreign investment is prohibited or restricted. These Rules makes provision for the establishment of sanctuaries (game sanctuaries) on any land at the disposal of the government or, subject to the consent of the owner, any land which is private property. It also provides for the protection of a number of named species outside sanctuaries and reserved forests. This Law was predicated on the rationale of protecting, by legislation, the cultural heritage of Myanmar. It places restrictions on the construction and renovation of Buddhist structures and precludes either individuals or organisations, other than government, from undertaking merit-making rituals. Under this policy, the main environmental body was the NCEA. Prior to the establishment of MOECAF, environmental conservation was undertaken by various ministries and departments. In 1990, the NCEA was established to advise the government on environmental policy, to act as a focal point and as a coordinating body for environmental affairs and to promote environmentally sound and sustainable development. The NCEA s main mission is to ensure sustainable use of environmental resources and to promote environmentally sound practices in industry and other economic activities, objectives and mandates. This Law was enacted to conserve and protect the water resources and rivers system for beneficial utilization by the public and to prevent serious environmental contamination. Page 2-4

52 Legislation/ Policy Public Health Law (1972) The Petroleum Act (1934) Description Section 9 of this law empowers the Government to carry out measures relating to environmental health, such as garbage disposal, use of water for drinking and other purposes, radioactivity, protection of air from pollution, sanitation works and food and drug safety. However, detailed provisions do not exist to ensure more effective and comprehensive regulation of these areas. The Petroleum Act is concerned with regulation of the production, storage and transport of oil so as not to cause pollution and fire. The Myanmar Agenda 21 encompasses a broad range of sectors and issues. Building on the National Environment Policy, the agenda takes into consideration the program guidelines found in the global Agenda 21 and is aimed at strengthening and promoting systematic environmental management in the country. Most importantly, the Myanmar Agenda 21 makes recommendations for the drafting and promulgation of a framework law which can further promote the integration of environmental and developmental concerns in the decision-making processes of the country Myanmar Agenda 21 (1997) The Myanmar Agenda 21 contains guidelines to address the following issues: increasing energy and material efficiency in production processes; reducing wastes from production and promoting recycling; promoting use of new and renewable sources of energy; using environmentally sound technologies for sustainable production; reducing wasteful consumption; and increasing awareness for sustainable consumption Page 2-5

53 2.5.1 Myanmar EIA Procedure The draft EIAP sets out the requirements for the assessment of, approval and subsequent monitoring conditions in the event that approval is granted. Refer to Section 1.3 for a description of the draft EIAP. Section 3.2 sets out a detailed account of the environmental and social assessment process and IEE conducted for the proposed survey activities in AD-5. In accordance with the current draft of the EIAP, this project automatically required an IEE level of assessment. The ECR sets out a number of definitions as they relate to an IEE or EIA: (a). Environmental management means the management of human activities which affect all living and non-living things which influence living things in the world and their relations. (b). Environment Impact Assessment means the process of systematic study of whether or not there are potentials or impact processes that may cause on the physical, human, biological and socioeconomic environment which is required as part of the decision making process on the proposed project, business or activity. (c). Initial Environmental Examination means the initial process which studies whether or not the environment impact assessment is required to be carried out. (d). Environmental Management Plan means the plan adopted to manage the activities of a business or organization which shall affect the environment. Such plan includes manners to conserve and protect the environmental impacts, work programmes to be carried out, precautionary measures to be carried out in environmental emergency. 2.6 International Agreements and Conventions In addition to the domestic laws listed above, Myanmar is also a signatory to the following international conventions, and these may have relevance to the proposed survey activities. Refer to Table 2-2. Page 2-6

54 Figure 2-1: Overview of the Draft EIA Procedure in Myanmar Project Proponent The Ministry Prepare Project Proposal Submit Screening based on the principles and categorization in Annex 1 Process for obtaining permit or license to implement an activity or project from the competent authority No IEE/ EIA Required Decision: EIA/IEE/NONE IEE Type Activity or Project EIA Type Activity or Project IEE Investigation and Review Scoping (EIA) IEE Review and Approval Process Note: indicates the path undertaken by Woodside for the proposed Project. EIA Investigation and Review EIA Review and Approval Appeal Process. Page 2-7

55 Table 2-2: International Agreements and Conventions Relevant to the Proposed Project International Agreements and Conventions Purpose Status International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto and by the Protocol of 1997( MARPOL) International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) 1974 Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG), 1972 International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watch-keeping for Seafarers, 1978 (STCW) Vienna Convention for the protection of the Ozone layer 1988 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 1989 Convention on Biological Diversity Annexes I-VI covers the control of discharges and emissions from vessels. The London Convention is aimed at the prevention of marine pollution by dumping of wastes and other matter. Three annexes are of particular relevance to this Project: MARPOL Annex I: Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil (October 1983); MARPOL Annex IV: Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships (September 2003); and MARPOL Annex V: Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Garbage from Ships (December 1998) International maritime safety treaty. It ensures that ships flagged by signatory States comply with minimum safety standards in construction, equipment and operation. Set out, among other things, the "rules of the road" or navigation rules to be followed by ships and other vessels at sea to prevent collisions between two or more vessels. This convention concerns the project particularly by its 2010 amendment which established new requirements for marine environment awareness training and training in leadership and teamwork; and new training guidance for personnel operating Dynamic Positioning Systems. Framework for directing international effort to protect the ozone layer, including legally binding requirements limiting the production and use of ozone depleting substances as defined in the Montreal Protocol to the Convention. Designed to reduce the production and consumption of ozone depleting substances in order to reduce their abundance in the atmosphere, and thereby protect the earth s fragile ozone layer. Conservation of biological diversity including the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits. Accepted on 6 July 1951; Myanmar has only ratified Annexes I and II of MARPOL 73/78, not Annexes II, IV, V and VI Page 2-8

56 International Agreements and Conventions Purpose Status United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992 (UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol 1997 United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea Asia Least Cost Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy 1998 (ALGAS) UNFCCC sets out an action plan to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Defines the rights and responsibilities of nations with respect to their use of the world's oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural resources. ALGAS Objectives: Develop national and regional capacity for the preparation of GHG inventories; Entered into force on 23 Feb 1995 and 16 Feb 2005 for UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol, respectively Ratified on 21 May Help identify GHG abatement options; and Prepare a portfolio of abatement projects for each country. United Nations Agenda 21 The formulation of Myanmar Agenda 21 was undertaken by the National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA) and completed in The main purpose of formulating the Agenda 21 is to provide a framework of programmes and actions for achieving sustainable development in the country. Building on the National Environment Policy of Myanmar, the Myanmar Agenda 21 takes into account principles contained in the Global Agenda 21. Myanmar Agenda 21 also aims at strengthening and promoting systematic environmental management in the country. Implemented since 1997 Page 2-9

57 2.7 Relevant International Standards and Guidelines Where practicable, Woodside has undertaken this IEE and will undertake its proposed survey activities in a manner that is guided by Good International Industry Practice (GIIP). Applicable standards and guidelines that Woodside has considered in the identification of appropriate control and mitigation measures for the proposed survey activities in AD-5 are summarised in Table 2-3. Table 2-3: International Standards and Guidelines Relevant to the Proposed Project International Standards & Guidelines International Finance Corporation (IFC) Performance Standards for Environmental and Social Sustainability (2012) World Bank Group General Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines (EHS) Guidelines (2007) Description A set of performance standards that provide guidance on how to identify risks and impacts and measures to avoid, mitigate and manage risks and impacts. The performance indicators also promote stakeholder engagement at various stages of the project lifecycle. The EHS Guidelines are technical reference documents with general and industry-specific examples of Good International Industry Practice (GIIP). These General EHS Guidelines are designed to be used together with the relevant Industry Sector EHS Guidelines which provide guidance to users on EHS issues in specific industry sectors. The EHS Guidelines contain the performance levels and measures that are generally considered to be achievable in new facilities by existing technology at reasonable costs. IFC Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for Offshore Oil and Gas Development (2007) The Joint Nature Conservation Commission (JNCC) Guidelines for Minimising the Risk of Injury or Disturbance to Marine Mammals from Seismic Survey (2010) United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) Guidelines on Environmental Management for Oil and Gas Exploration and Production (1997) International Association of Geophysical Contractors Recommended Mitigation Measures For Cetaceans during Geophysical Operations (June 2011) The EHS Guidelines for Offshore Oil and Gas Development include information relevant to seismic exploration, exploratory and production drilling, development and production activities, offshore pipeline operations, offshore transportation, tanker loading and unloading, ancillary and support operations, and decommissioning. It also addresses potential onshore impacts that may result from offshore oil and gas activities. The guidelines are aimed at reducing the risk of injury to negligible levels and can also potentially reduce the risk of disturbance to marine mammals including seals, whales, dolphins and porpoises from seismic surveys. The guidelines require the use of trained Marine Mammal Observers (MMOs) whose role is to advise on the use of the guidelines and to conduct pre-shooting searches for marine mammals before commencement of any seismic activity. This document provides an overview of the environmental issues and the technical and management approaches to achieving high environmental performance in the activities necessary for oil and gas exploration and production in the world. Identifies and recommends mitigation measures to be used for cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) only during geophysical operations. Gives procedures such as pre-watching, soft start, etc. in order to prevent potential damages on cetaceans. Page 2-10

58 International Standards & Guidelines Joint OGP/IAGC Position Paper: Seismic Surveys & Marine Mammals (2004) International Petroleum Industry Environment and Conservation Association (IPIECA): The Oil and Gas Industry - Operating In Sensitive Environments (2003) Description This is a position paper on the sound introduced into the marine environment as a result of seismic exploration and its potential impact on marine mammals. Three key objectives of this publication are to: demonstrate that minimal impact operations are achievable in a diverse range of environmental and social settings; actively encourage exchange of company experiences and best practices ; and provide a basis of discussion with groups outside the industry with a view to promoting ongoing improvements in industry performance. International Oil and Gas Producers Association Waste Management Guidelines (1993) International Cable Protection Committee (ICPC) Procedure to be Followed Whilst Offshore Seismic Survey Work Is Undertaken In The Vicinity Of Active Submarine Cable Systems (ICPC Recommendation No. 8) These Guidelines provides information on the range of waste management options available for wastes generated by oil and gas exploration activities. This document recommends procedures to be followed whilst offshore seismic survey work is undertaken in the vicinity of active submarine cable systems where these are installed in water depths of 200m or less. 2.8 Guidelines for Management of Underwater Sound Myanmar does not currently have country-specific guidelines for managing underwater sound from offshore oil and gas activities. Consequently, the International Association of Geophysical Contractors (IAGC) Recommended Mitigation Measures for Cetaceans during Geophysical Operations, and the JNCC Guidelines for Minimising Acoustic Disturbance to Marine Mammals from Seismic Surveys will be referenced by Woodside and its appointed seismic survey contractors. Although the IAGC and JNCC guidelines do not cover marine turtles and whale sharks, Woodside shall adopt the same mitigation measures to manage the potential effects of its proposed activities on these marine fauna as those set out for marine mammals in the IAGC and JNCC guidelines. Page 2-11

59 3 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT S IEE PROCESS This Chapter provides an overview of the process in carrying out the IEE for this Project including the presentation of the IEE team members and their responsibilities in the preparation of the report. 3.1 IEE Study Team The consultant company engaged to undertake the IEE preparation is AECOM, in conjunction with local counterpart E Guard Environmental Services Co., Ltd. (E Guard). AECOM is a global company registered in the USA, and is one of the largest providers of engineering and environmental services in the world. AECOM has a major presence in Southeast Asia, and is currently delivering impact assessment projects regionally, including in Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines. AECOM has an office in Myanmar and has supported this project primarily from its Malaysian office, supported by its Indonesia, Thailand and Singapore offices. AECOM is registered as an International Consultant on the MOECAF interim register of environmental consultants. E Guard is a duly registered company in Myanmar. To date, E Guard has prepared numerous environmental and social impact assessments, and has conducted stakeholder engagement activities in Myanmar industry sectors including oil and gas, manufacturing, energy and infrastructure. E Guard is a duly registered consultant on the MOECAF register of local environmental consultants. AECOM has been engaged by Woodside to prepare and submit the IEE for the proposed survey activities in AD-5. The composition of the key IEE team members is shown in Table 3-1. Table 3-1: Key Members of the IEE Study Team Team Member Role Chapter Responsibility International Specialists Woodside Internal Reviewer, Impacts and Mitigation Advice Chapter 6 Review, All chapters Kevin Dobson Project Director and Senior Reviewer Overall review and editorial Mark Agar Technical Reviewer Overall review and editorial Tan Giok Hui Project Coordinator Chapters 1, 2, 4 Melanie Rippon Stakeholder Engagement Specialist Chapters 3, 7 Kenneth Gilbert Geologist Chapter 5 (Geology) Marco Da Cunha Social Scientist Chapters 5 & 8 (Social) Peter Wulf Technical Lead - Marine Environment Environmental Law Specialist Chapter 5 & 8 (Marine Sciences) Chapter 2 Regulatory Framework Craig McPherson, Jasco Applied Sciences Marine Acoustics Specialist Chapters 5 & 8 Marine Acoustics Advisor Dr Glenn Dunshea Marine Ecologist Chapters 5 & 8 (Marine Ecology) Page 3-1

60 Team Member Role Chapter Responsibility Yong Yee Meng Marine Ecologist Chapter 5 (Marine Ecology) Reneica Ayu Pratiwi GIS Specialist Maps and Spatial data Myanmar Specialists U Aye Thiha Project Director and Senior Reviewer Overall editorial review U Saw Win Impact Assessment Lead/ Project Manager Chapter 2 Regulatory framework U Myo Thet Tin Social Scientist - U Aung Min Thu Social Scientist - Prof. U Tint Swee Marine Scientist Chapter 5 Marine ecology and fisheries baselines Prof. U Soe Htun Marine Ecologist Chapter 5 Marine ecology and fisheries baselines U Soe Min Regulatory Specialist Chapter 2 - Regulatory framework U Ting Aung Moe GIS Specialist Local assistance with mapping and spatial data management. 3.2 Environmental and Social Assessment Methodology This section summarises the overall approach and methodologies used for identification of potential impacts, baseline survey, stakeholder consultation, impact analysis and development of mitigation measures Screening Screening is undertaken as part of the risk assessment process (i.e. to identify environmental risks) and in line with the local EIA guidelines to determine the level of impact assessment study that will be required for obtaining project approval. As per the draft EIAP, a Project Proposal was submitted to MOECAF, which included: regulatory requirements; project description; determining the study area; environmental and social context; stakeholder consultation; and preliminary identification of potential impacts and mitigation measures Page 3-2

61 As part of the screening process, a Screening/ Scoping Checklist was developed for the preliminary identification of: regulatory triggers; potential environmental and social impacts; data requirements; and stakeholders for engagement. MOECAF determined that an IEE level of assessment was required for this Project IEE Study Environmental Impacts Identification (ENVID) An Environmental impacts identification (ENVID) workshop was carried out to systematically identify the potential environmental hazards and impacts associated with the Project activities, and mitigation strategies, and to assess the residual environmental risks using the Woodside Operational Risk Table. A two-day workshop was held on 16 th and 20 th of January 2015 to cover the planned and unplanned activities. The ENVID workshop was facilitated by AECOM with the participation of representatives from Woodside. The identified environmental impacts subsequently underwent further assessment in the impact assessment stage of the IEE. Refer to Chapter 6 for a full description of Woodside s risk assessment methodology and its application in the identification and assessment of potential environmental and social impacts and risks for the proposed survey activities in AD Public Consultation and Information Disclosure The public consultation aimed to be consistent, comprehensive, coordinated and culturally appropriate and involved the following activities: consultation planning; stakeholder identification; information disclosure; consultation; and feedback management. National notification of the IEE studies was undertaken on the 27 th and 28 th March 2015 via advertisements in three (3) national newspapers (refer Appendix A). Consultation activities were undertaken at the Union, Ayeyarwady Region, Township and Village-tract levels with Government bodies/ representatives, civil society/ institutions and local community representatives. Consultation methods included one-on-one informal meetings, formal meetings, small group discussions and formal presentations. Project activities were disclosed to stakeholders by providing a PowerPoint presentation, accompanying verbal explanations and providing a fact sheet on Woodside s activities in Myanmar. This was followed by a question and answer session. Stakeholder feedback contact channels were also provided. Further details of the public consultation are outlined in Chapter 7. Page 3-3

62 Specialist Studies Determining the Area of Influence As part of the impact identification process, consideration was given to the Area of Influence (AOI) for the Project; that is the geographical area within which potentially significant impacts may occur. The area of influence was identified as all of AD-5, and an additional 8km buffer around this to account for the seismic vessels turning circle (Project operational area). Study Plans Two study plans were developed at the commencement of the specialist studies: Social Studies Plan Marine Environment Studies Plan The plans outlined information requirements to establish a baseline, impacted users and / or issues, data sources, responsibilities for sourcing data and links between specialist areas. Data Collection The baseline analysis included a review of the physical, biological and socio-economic environment, focusing on those aspects with the greatest potential to be impacted by the Project. Secondary data sources were obtained for this study and included the following: published literature and scientific journals; population statistical data (issued by the Township General Administration Department); websites; and non-governmental Organisation (NGO)/ Community Based Organisation (CBO) Reports on Culture and Heritage Impact Assessment and Mitigation The impact assessment considered the following environmental and social elements that were initially identified during the screening stage: Navigation Air quality and climate change Climate and meteorology Water management Bathymetry and topography Marine flora, fauna and habitats Geosciences Waste management Natural hazards Protected areas Hydrodynamics Fishers and marine-based livelihoods Water quality Community amenity and culture Lighting Submarine services Noise and vibration Population, demographics and settlement patterns Page 3-4

63 Each of these environmental and social elements was then considered in terms of the project activities that have the potential to create impacts. The project activities were broken down as follows: seismic surveys (2D and 3D); gravity and magnetic survey; coring survey; vessel management and logistics; and potential accidents and emergency situations. Refer to Chapter 6 for a full description of Woodside s risk assessment methodology and its application in the identification and assessment of potential environmental and social impacts and risks for the proposed survey activities in AD-5. Page 3-5

64 4 PROJECT DESCRIPTION 4.1 Project Proponent Woodside is the largest holder of exploration acreage in Myanmar s Rakhine Basin, with interests in six offshore permits. The exploration activities in AD-5 will be operated by Woodside (Myanmar) Pte Ltd (Woodside), a subsidiary of Woodside Petroleum Ltd. Woodside Petroleum is an Australian oil and gas company with a global presence, recognised for its world-class capabilities as an explorer, a developer, a producer and a supplier. Woodside Petroleum s operations are characterised by strong safety and environmental performance in remote and challenging locations. The company s producing liquefied natural gas (LNG) assets in the north west of Australia are among the world s best facilities. Today, Woodside Petroleum s growing global exploration portfolio includes emerging and frontier provinces in Australasia, the Atlantic margins and sub-saharan Africa. A copy of Woodside s Health Safety and Environment (HSE) Policy is provided in Appendix B. The company s growing exploration portfolio in Myanmar aligns with its core capabilities in deepwater exploration and project development, and supports the expansion of Woodside s global portfolio to generate future growth opportunities for the company. Through exploration drilling and marine seismic activities planned for late 2015 early 2016, Woodside aims to be a leader in frontier deepwater exploration in the Rakhine Basin and drive the further development of Myanmar s offshore oil and gas sector. Woodside first entered offshore Myanmar through farm-in opportunities executed in 2013 for A-6 and AD-7. The former operated by Myanmar Petroleum Resources Limited E&P Pte. Limited and the latter operated by Daewoo International Corporation. Woodside will be the operator of A-6, save for respect of government relations where MPRL will be the operator, and operator of deepwater drilling activities in both blocks. Woodside s position offshore Myanmar expanded in 2014 when Woodside and its bidding partners were awarded four blocks as part of the Myanmar Government s Offshore Bid Round. Production Sharing Contracts (PSC) for A-7 and AD-5 (operated by Woodside) and A-4 and AD-2 (operated by BG Group) were signed in March 2015 (refer to Table 4-1). Refer to Figure 4-1 for an overview of Woodside s offshore interests in Myanmar. A copy of Woodside s Health Safety and Environment (HSE) Policy is provided in Appendix B. Table 4-1: Joint Venture Composition for all Woodside Myanmar Blocks Block Woodside BG MPEP* Daewoo A-6 AD-7 50% (Operator, save for government relations) 40% (Deepwater drilling operator) - 50% (MPRL*) % A-7 45% (Operator) 45% 10% - AD-5 55% (Operator) 45% - - A-4 45% 45% (Operator) 10% - AD-2 45% 55% (Operator) - - Note: *MPEP - Myanmar Petroleum Exploration & Production Co. Ltd, MPRL Myanmar Petroleum Resources Limited E&P Pte. Ltd) - Page 4-1

65 Figure 4-1: Woodside s Blocks in Myanmar Page 4-2

66 4.2 Survey Location The proposed survey activities will be undertaken within AD-5. Acquisition within AD-5 will take place from approximately 247km to approximately 95km off the west coast of the Ayeyarwady Region and about 100km to the north west of Diamond Island in the Bay of Bengal. The surveys will comprise an acquisition area of approximately 10,645km 2, in water depths ranging from 2,300m to 2,800m. The survey will comprise two dimensional (2D) marine seismic and three dimensional (3D) marine seismic data acquisition as well as gravity and magnetic data acquisition and seabed coring, and is expected to be conducted as multiple activities across both A-7 and AD-5 (Figure 4-2). The survey activities in A-7 are subject to a separate IEE process and are, therefore, not included in this IEE. Due to the length of the towed streamers, the seismic vessel will require an additional turnaround zone approximately 8km wide outside of the blocks, as shown in Figure 4-3, which depicts the extent of the Project operational area. The turning area allows for survey line run-outs, survey line turns and survey line run-ins and minimises the likelihood of streamer entanglement; however, no acquisition of data will be conducted in this zone. Page 4-3

67 Figure 4-2: Overview of Survey Location with Indicative Survey Areas Page 4-4

68 Figure 4-3: The Project Operational Area including Buffer Zone Page 4-5

69 4.3 Survey Schedule The 2D and 3D marine seismic survey (MSS) activities are expected to commence between mid- November and early December 2015, with approximately 35 days and 180 days of acquisition across A-7 and AD-5, respectively. The 3D MSS in AD-5 and A-7 will be followed by 2-D in A-7. Gravity and magnetic data will be acquired concurrently with seismic acquisition, utilising the same survey vessels. The seabed coring is likely to commence in March 2016 after the majority of the 3D MSS has been completed. 4.4 Seismic Acquisition Equipment Survey Fleet For the AD-5 2D and 3D MSS, the expected fleet will comprise of approximately six (6) to eight (8) vessels in total, including: Seismic vessel: a purpose-built vessel with accommodation for the survey crew and operating equipment. The vessel will tow the streamers and seismic source as described in Sections and The vessel will have all equipment, systems, and protocols in place for safety and prevention of incidents in accordance with international standards and certification authorities, and will comply with all applicable regulations concerning management of waste and discharges of materials into the marine environment. The same vessel or separate seismic vessels will be utilised for the 2D and 3D MSS. Support vessel: the support vessel provides assistance to the seismic vessel during each of the survey activities. This includes maintaining a safe work area around the towed equipment (the safety zone), providing supplies when required for the seismic vessel, at sea refuelling, and assisting in emergency situations. Chase vessels: one or more chase boats will be used to clear acquisition lines of any debris, liaise with fishermen and other vessels entering the safety zone around the survey vessel to maintain safe operating distances. Indicative vessel characteristics are highlighted in Table 4-2; these are preliminary, and may vary dependent on the geophysical contractor to whom the surveys are awarded. Gravity and magnetic data acquisition is proposed to be completed as part of the 2D and 3D MSS. A dedicated vessel is likely to be utilised for seabed coring. The vessels will operate 24 hours per day, 7 days a week throughout the survey period. Page 4-6

70 Table 4-2: Indicative Parameters for Survey Fleet Parameter Seismic Vessel Support Vessel Chase Vessel Seabed Coring Vessel Vessel To be confirmed To be confirmed To be confirmed To be confirmed No. in fleet or more 1 Registered tonnage ~13,000 ~3,000 ~3,000 ~2,500 Length overall (LOA) 110m 65m 65m 70m Breadth 40m 20m 20m 15m Draft 8m 7m 7m 6m Crew capacity (per vessel) Typical crew numbers personnel personnel 6-10 personnel Acoustic Source The acoustic source that generates intermittent pulses is typically composed of two high pressure air chambers; an upper control chamber and a discharge chamber. A compressor situated aboard the survey vessel continuously supplies high pressure air (source pressure: 2,000psi) (Figure 4-4) to the acoustic sources that are towed behind the vessel via an air hose. The air pressure forces the piston downwards and the chambers fill with high pressure air while the piston remains in the closed position. Figure 4-4: Air Gun Schematic The acoustic source (Plate 4-1) is activated by sending an electric pulse to the solenoid valve that opens and allows high pressure air to flow to the underside of the piston through the air ports. The air from these ports forms a bubble which oscillates according to the operating pressure, water depth and the temperature and volume of air vented into the water. The piston is then forced back into its original position by the high pressure air in the control chamber so that once the discharge chamber is fully charged with high pressure air, the acoustic source can be released again. This process is very rapid, taking only a few seconds to recharge. Page 4-7

71 Plate 4-1: Acoustic Source Array Acoustic source arrays combine a number of individual acoustic sources to direct most of the sound energy vertically downwards although there is some residual energy that will dissipate horizontally into the water. The amplitude of sound waves generally declines with distance from the acoustic source, and the weakening of the signal with distance is frequency dependent, with stronger attenuation at higher frequencies Streamers The seismic receiver cables or streamers comprise an array of marine receivers (hydrophones) that are towed by the survey vessel (Plate 4-2). Streamers are long plastic cables with marine receivers evenly spaced along their lengths, which listen for seismic echoes caused by the firing of the acoustic source. The marine receivers are composed of piezoelectric hydrophones, which respond to changes in water pressure. Tail buoys are connected to the end of the streamers to provide both a hazard warning (lights and radar reflector) of each submerged towed streamer between the tail buoy and vessel and to act as a platform for positional systems of the streamers. Page 4-8

72 Plate 4-2: 3D Survey Vessel and Towed Array 4.5 General Description of Marine Seismic Survey Activities Marine seismic surveys enable the mapping of subsurface geological formations and the identification of potential hydrocarbon deposits. The seismic surveys involve directing acoustic (sound) energy into the geology (rocks) under the seabed using specialised equipment towed by a purpose-built survey vessel as shown in Figure 4-5. The survey vessel tows long cables called streamers behind it at a set depth below the water surface. Sound receiving devices called hydrophones are attached to the streamers at specific intervals. The sound source and streamers are usually towed at a depth of 5 20m below the water surface, and are towed at a speed of approximately 5 knots (8-9 km/h), thus the vessel is constantly moving. The streamers utilise depth control devices at regular intervals along the streamers to control their depth. The proposed surveys are temporary activities that do not require the construction of any structures or permanent features. The sound source generates intermittent acoustic pulses that are directed downwards to the seabed. These sound waves are reflected back upwards from the various layers of sediment and rock below the seabed, and are received by the hydrophones contained in the streamers being towed behind the survey vessel. Hydrophones convert the reflected pressure signals into electrical energy that is digitised and transmitted along the streamer to the recording system on board the survey vessel. Page 4-9

73 Figure 4-5: Diagrammatic Overview of Seismic Survey Operations Reflected sound waves are received by hydrophones contained in the streamers Acoustic pulses are generated by the sound source Acoustic pulses reflect off the various rock layers below the seabed Source: Base image sourced from and reproduced courtesy of IPIECA At the commencement of marine seismic surveys, sound levels are gradually ramped up to their full volume over a period of approximately 30 minutes, to minimise impacts on marine animals and ensure that any nearby marine animals have time to move away from the survey area. As part of environmental best practice on seismic survey vessels, the output of the acoustic source usually undergoes a soft start. This is the process whereby a single small-volume acoustic source is activated followed by the gradual introduction of more acoustic sources of a larger volume, until the full working capacity of the whole sound source array is reached. Once operating normally, the pulses are generated every 8 to 15 seconds. A computerised analysis of these reflected sound waves allows the survey team to generate an image of the geology below the seabed, and more accurately identify the location, extent and depth of possible hydrocarbon reserves below the seabed. A typical scenario for the spatial footprint of a marine seismic survey vessel is shown in Figure 4-6, which depicts a generic configuration of equipment for a 3D marine seismic survey. Page 4-10

74 Figure 4-6: Generic 3D MSS Equipment Configuration Survey Patterns Seismic surveys are conducted in a series of parallel survey lines. For 2D and 3D seismic acquisition the survey lines are typically 4km and 500m apart, respectively. The vessel moves at approximately 4-5 knots. In order to turn through 180 at the end of each survey line, a vessel (particularly in 3D configuration) needs a turning area of approximately 8km to avoid entangling the streamers. As a result the survey pattern follows what is described as a racecourse pattern through the survey area as shown in Figure 4-7. As a result surveys are completed in segments through the survey area, and the safety zone extends temporarily beyond the seismic acquisition area and into the turning circles at the end of each survey line. The acoustic source is shut down at the end of each survey line, and then recommences with a soft-start for the next survey line through the survey area. Page 4-11

75 Figure 4-7: Schematic View of a Racecourse Pattern in a Survey Segment Application of a Safety Zone Marine seismic survey vessels are restricted in their manoeuvrability during operations. International maritime regulations require all vessels to give way in order to avoid the possibility of a collision and/or entanglement. The seismic vessel displays internationally recognised signage and lights to warn other vessels that it has restricted manoeuvrability. Radio communications are also used to alert other vessels of this, and they are requested to keep a minimum safe distance from operations. A 500m safety zone is established around the seismic vessel and the towed streamers. The purpose of this zone is to ensure the safety of personnel and members of the public as well as to guard against damage to property. The 500m safety zone extends forward of the seismic vessel s bow, aft of the streamers and to the port and starboard of the entire vessel and streamer array. The chase vessels shall be responsible for safeguarding against incursions by third parties within 500m of the seismic vessel and towed array. The seismic vessel plus towed equipment is approximately 8km long. The activity vessels will detect other vessels in the area and if they do not recognise the contract from the seismic vessel they shall use fog horns, flares and if the vessel continues to ignore the seismic vessel will alter its course and can drop the streamers to depth of up to 50m, which prevents entanglement and avoid a collision. Page 4-12

76 4.6 Description of the Proposed 2D Marine Seismic Survey The 2D MSS will use one streamer, approximately 10,000 to 12,000m long, towed at 10m below the sea surface behind the seismic vessel. The seismic source array will be located approximately 7m below the surface with single array configuration and a typical volume of 4,000cui (cubic inches). Typical source outputs (sound pressure levels SPL) during the 2D MSS will be db re 1μPa/m (when measured relative to a reference pressure of one micropascal). The proposed 2D MSS for AD-5 will have the following characteristics (Table 4-3). Table 4-3: Indicative Characteristics of AD-5 2D Seismic Survey Parameter 2D Survey Water depth range within operational area 2,300m 2,800m Distance to nearest marine protected area (Diamond Island) 100km Number of streamers 1 Streamer length 10,000 12,000m Streamer depth Streamer separation Source depth Source operating pressure 10m Single array - 4,000cui 7m 2,000psi Peak source intensity dB re 1μPa (at 1m) Total linear kilometres Shot point Interval 3,600km 25m The sound source emits high intensity, low frequency acoustic sounds that are directed downwards into the various layers of rock or substrata beneath the seabed. The reflections from the subsurface are assumed to lie directly below the survey line that the seismic vessel traverses, hence the name 2D. The processing of the data is less sophisticated than that employed for 3D surveys. 2D survey lines are typically acquired several kilometres apart, on a broad grid of survey lines, over a large area. This method is generally used in frontier exploration areas before drilling is undertaken, to produce a general understanding of the regional geological structure. 4.7 Description of the Proposed 3D Marine Seismic Survey A truly representative image of the subsurface is only obtained when the entire wave field is sampled. 3D seismic surveys are more capable of accurately imaging reflected waves as they utilise multiple points of observation rather than a single source as is collected in 2D surveys. Multi-streamer, multisource surveys allow a range of different angles (azimuth) and distances (offset) to be sampled resulting in a volume, or cube, of seismic data. By utilising 3D technology, a more detailed and accurate delineation of the boundaries and extent of subsurface geological structures is possible. Potential oil and gas reserves can be imaged in 3D allowing interpreters to view the data in cross-sections along 360 of azimuth, in depth slices parallel Page 4-13

77 to the ground surface, and along planes that cut arbitrarily through the data volume. Information such as faulting and fracturing, bedding plane direction, the presence of pore fluids, complex geologic structure, and detailed stratigraphy are now commonly interpreted from 3D seismic data sets. 3D surveys are typically acquired with a racetrack pattern being employed to reduce the time necessary to turn the vessel while allowing adjacent survey lines to be recorded with the data in the same direction (swathe). This increases the efficiency of acquiring data and removes the processing discontinuities, which could adversely affect the interpretation of data. In general, the survey area is broken into areas in which swathes of survey lines are completed in phases. Powerful computers are required to process the large volume of data acquired into a 3D image of the subsurface. 3D surveys have now become the preferred method for providing the geological interpreter with subsurface information and account for more than 95% of marine seismic data acquired worldwide. In the 3D survey, 10 to 12 streamers are towed behind the survey vessel, together with dual seismic sources. The streamers, each approximately 7,000m long, will be towed at approximately 10m below the sea surface and 100m apart at their widest point at the end of the streamers. The 3D survey is expected to use a dual array configuration with a typical volume of 4,000cui. The acoustic source will have an operating pressure of 2,000psi. A 3D survey gives a detailed 3D image of the subsurface geology. The proposed 3D seismic survey for AD-5 will have the following indicative characteristics (Table 4-4). Table 4-4: Indicative Characteristics of AD-5 3D Marine Seismic Survey Parameter 3D Survey Water depth range within operational area 2,300-2,800 Distance to nearest marine protected area (Diamond Island) 100km Number of streamers Streamer length 7,000m Streamer depth Streamer separation Source capacity Source depth Source operating pressure 10m 100m Dual arrays- 4,000cui 7m 2,000psi Peak source intensity db re 1μPa (at 1m) Total area 3,155km 2 Shot point Interval 18.75m Page 4-14

78 4.8 Description of Other Surveys Gravity and Magnetic Data Acquisition Gravity and magnetic data is utilised in the oil and gas industry to assess the depth and nature of the seabed sediments. Acquisition equipment measures changes in density and magnetic intensity, and this allows maps to be created showing the lateral distribution of the various sediments. Gravity and magnetic data acquisition is proposed to be conducted as part of the overall surveys in AD-5, with equipment and personnel working in conjunction with seismic operations to acquire the data simultaneously Seabed Coring In addition to the proposed seismic acquisition, Woodside will also undertake seabed sampling to characterise the seabed sediments. A vessel fitted with sampling equipment will be utilised to undertake the seabed sampling via non-drilling techniques. Samples will be acquired using a gravity core sampler, piston core sampler or other standard industry method. Core sampling is a technique for acquiring samples of marine sediments using a weighted steel barrel in the order of 250 1,000kg. The sampling equipment is lowered from the vessel via a cable to approximately four metres above the seafloor and then allowed to free-fall under its own self weight in to the seabed. As the core barrel penetrates the seabed, a sample enters the core barrel and is retained in a PVC liner by a core catcher. Once penetration has stopped, the core sampler is withdrawn from the seabed and recovered to the vessel. The location of the core sampling equipment is monitored at all times from the vessel by a USBL (Ultra Short BaseLine) positioning system. On board the vessel the sample is removed from the core barrel for preliminary analysis before being packaged for transportation to an onshore laboratory for detailed analysis. Typically core samples are of the order of six metres in length, depending on the strength of the seabed sediments and the penetration depth of the sampling equipment. The seabed sampling survey will utilise a single dedicated survey vessel. The seabed sampling locations will be selected will from the 3D seismic data. All samples will be retained on the vessel and not discharged back to the ocean. It will not be necessary to maintain the exclusion zone through the period of the seabed sampling, although IMO conventions requirements for avoidance of collision and clearance around vessels will be maintained. Page 4-15

79 Plate 4-3: Core Sampler equipment being deployed from the vessel Plate 4-4: Sample of the seabed sediments after recovery of the core sampler equipment to the vessel 4.9 Emissions, Discharges and Waste Management The seismic survey vessel is expected to remain offshore for the entire survey. Bunkering and resupply of the vessel will be conducted at sea by a support vessel. The survey contractor will utilise an existing onshore supply base. A specific port is yet to be determined; however, it is likely to be located outside of Myanmar. The wastewater generated by the seismic and support/ chase vessels includes domestic and sanitary wastewater, deck and bilge water that will be treated and monitored aboard before discharge into the surrounding environment. These wastewater releases will strictly comply with MARPOL 73/78 Annex I requirements. A variety of non-hazardous solid wastes will be generated during the seismic survey such as glass, paper, plastic and wood. No solid wastes will be disposed of intentionally into the marine environment. All solid wastes must be collected and shipped to shore. Vessels shall be operated in compliance with MARPOL regulations whereby the discharge of comminuted and disinfected sewage and food waste ground to particle size <25mm is permitted >3nm from nearest land. For sewage not comminuted or disinfected and food waste not ground, discharge is permitted >12nm from land. Hazardous wastes from lubricants, filters, chemical containers, used equipment, will be stored and consolidated for onshore disposal. Page 4-16

80 5 DESCRIPTION OF THE EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 5.1 Introduction This Chapter provides a description of the existing environmental conditions of AD-5 within the maritime jurisdiction of Myanmar (offshore) and its south-western coastal areas. The location of the Project operational area is depicted in Figure 5-1. Figure 5-1: Project Operational Area Location Map The main environmental and social data for the Project operational area have been obtained from bibliographic research and the findings of previous environmental studies performed by others in Myanmar. This has been supported by stakeholder engagement with the local community and interviews with relevant local Myanmar science specialists. This Chapter considers the existing environmental and social conditions in the north-eastern Bay of Bengal for aspects that are relevant to the Project. General information of regional context is presented, followed by more specific information concerning AD-5. Page 5-1

81 5.2 Regional Context Physical Environmental Setting Myanmar is the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia comprising a land area of over 676,552km 2. It is bordered to the north by Tibet Autonomous Region of China; to the east by China, Laos, and Thailand; to the south by the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal; and to the west by the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh and India. As a country, Myanmar slopes downward in elevation from the north to the south, and is naturally divided into Upper Myanmar and Lower Myanmar. The terrain is made up of central lowlands ringed by steep, rugged highlands. In the north, the Hengduan Shan Mountains form the border with China. Mount Hkakabo Razi, located in the Kachin State, is at an elevation of 5,881m and is the highest point in Myanmar. Three of the mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau, all exist within Myanmar and all of these ranges run south-wards from the Himalayas in the north. These three mountain chains also divide Myanmar's three main river systems, which are the Ayeyarwady, the Thanlwin, and the Sittang rivers (Figure 5-2). Myanmar's longest river, the Ayeyarwady River, is nearly 2,170km long, and it flows through the country and into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains. The Myanmar coastline is about 2,280km long, with the continental shelf covering an area of approximately 230,000km 2. The coastal zones of Myanmar can be subdivided into three main areas, namely Rakhine Coast, Ayeyarwady Delta and Tanintharyi Coast Meteorology General Characteristics Myanmar is located in the monsoon region of Asia. However, its climate is greatly modified by its geographic position and its topography. Most of Myanmar lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. The Tropic of Cancer divides the country into two regions: the tropical south that covers twothirds of the country, and the sub-tropical and temperate north, which is the remaining one-third of Myanmar. The climate of Myanmar is divided into three distinct seasons, namely cold and dry season (November to February), the hot and dry season (March to April) and wet season (May to October). The summer extends from March to mid-may. The highest temperatures during March and April in Central Myanmar may exceed 43.3 C while in Northern Myanmar it is about 36.1 C and on the Shan Plateau between 29.4 C and 35 C. The rain falls from mid-may to the end of October. Annual average rainfall is less than 1,016mm in central Myanmar while the coastal regions of Rakhine and Tanintharyi receive about 5,080mm of precipitation. The cold season runs from November to the end of February. Temperatures in hilly areas above 3,000 feet can drop below 0 o C. Generally, Myanmar enjoys a tropical monsoon climate. However, climatic conditions differ widely from place to place due to widely differing topography. According to the Ministry of Transport s Department of Meteorology, the closest coastal meteorological station to AD-5 is Pathein. Details of the Pathein meteorological station are provided in Table 5-1. Therefore, it is possible to extrapolate the conditions in the Project operational area from the meteorological conditions observed at Pathein, though Pathein lies to the east of the Rakhine Yoma. Page 5-2

82 Offshore SEISMIC Studies FOR BLOCK AD-5, RAKHINE BASIN, MYANMAR Figure 5-2: Main River Systems and Coastal Regions in Myanmar Rakhine Coast Ayeyarwady Delta Tanintharyi Coast Source: Waterways in Myanmar (Myanmar Information Management Unit) Page 5-3

83 Table 5-1: Details of Pathein Meteorological Station Division District Station Name Station Code Coordinates Elevation (m) Years Ayeryawady Pathein Pathein Latitude 16 46'N Longitude 94 46'E ( ) Source: World Meteorological Organisation/ Myanmar Ministry of Transport Temperature In Myanmar, the average temperature range is from 22 C to 32 C. The southern areas (Myaunmya, Pathein and Phyapon Districts) are hotter than in the north (Hinthada and Maaunbin Districts). The hottest months are April and May while the coldest are December and January. According to the Myanmar Ministry of Transport, the average annual temperature at Pathein is 27.1 C (Table 5-2 and Figure 5-3). The maximum average temperatures are recorded in April (35.8 C) and the minimum average in January (16.9 C). Table 5-2: Average Temperatures Recorded in the Pathein District ( ) T ( C) Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Annual Maximum (1) Minimum (2) Mean (3) Source: World Meteorological Organisation/ Myanmar Ministry of Transport Note: (1) Average maximum temperatures (2) Average minimum temperatures (3) Average mean temperatures Page 5-4

84 Temperature ( o C) INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXAMINATION (IEE) Figure 5-3: Average Temperatures in Pathein Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Months Maximum Minimum Mean Source: World Meteorological Organization/ Myanmar Ministry of Transport Rainfall Rainfall is highly seasonal, being concentrated in the hot humid months of the South-west Monsoon (May October). In contrast, the North-east Monsoon (December March) is relatively cool and almost entirely dry. The most significant regional variations are those associated with the intensity of the South-west Monsoon rains. Annual rainfall can be as high as 4,000 6,000mm at the coast and in the mountains of Rakhine and Tanintharyi. Intermediate levels of rainfall are found across the Ayeyarwady Delta area (2,000 3,000mm). Figure 5-4 shows the distribution of annual rainfall across Myanmar with monthly rainfall graphs for Pathein rainfall stations. As shown in Table 5-3 and Figure 5-5, the driest month is February. Most rainfall occurs in June- August with an average of 656mm per month. The average annual rainfall in Pathein is 2,903mm. Table 5-3: Monthly Average Rainfall Recorded in the Pathein District ( ) Monthly Average Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Annual Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (mm) ,903 Source: Transporthttp://dwms.fao.org/atlases/myanmar/atlas_en.htm Page 5-5

85 Figure 5-4: Rainfall Map of Myanmar with Monthly Distribution Patterns for Selected Locations Source: Page 5-6

86 Rainfall (mm) INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXAMINATION (IEE) Figure 5-5: Rainfall in Pathein Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Months Source: Wind The dominant wind regime during the period from mid-april to October is the South-west Monsoon that blows across the Bay of Bengal. It originates as the south east trade winds over the central Southern Indian Ocean. From mid to late November through to February, the predominant wind direction is from north-east. During June, the South-west Monsoon continues to strengthen across the Bay of Bengal and the winds become more uniform. This monsoon peaks in intensity during July, again with fairly uniform winds across the Bay of Bengal. The monsoon remains relatively strong throughout August then wanes quickly during September, particularly for the north through northeast of the Bay of Bengal. October is a transition month between the South-west Monsoon and the North-east Monsoon which is strengthening through the South China Sea at this time. The cooling of the northern Asian continent coupled with the southward shift of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) are the driving forces for this monsoonal regime. During November, the North-east Monsoon becomes progressively established across the Bay of Bengal, strongest over the west of the bay. In December, the Northeast Monsoon strengthens significantly and this monsoon peaks during January. The east of the Bay of Bengal tends to have more of a northerly wind regime during this period of time Natural Hazards of Coastal Areas of Myanmar Myanmar is situated in the western part of South-east Asia, bordered by the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. The nation has a coastline of approximately 2,280km. Myanmar is rich in marine natural resources, however these natural resources can be threatened by natural hazards. The Hazard Profile of Myanmar lists nine frequently-occurring natural hazards. Of these, the following five have the potential to impact coastal areas of Myanmar: cyclones; earthquakes; floods; Page 5-7

87 storm surges; and tsunamis. The Rakhine Coast is approximately 740km long and extends from the Naff River to Mawdin Point (Figure 5-2). It is shallow and deltaic in the northern section and rocky in the southern part. The Rakhine coastal plain forms a narrow strip, on average between 5 and 20km wide. In places it is up to 60km wide, rising to the Rakhine Yoma mountain range parallel to the coast to the east. It is traversed by a number of short, fast-flowing rivers. Recent major natural disasters along the coastal areas are as follows: Cyclone Nargis, 2008, upwards of 130,000 people died and property damage equalled approximately USD4.1 billion. Cyclone Mala, 2006, claimed 37 lives. Indian Ocean Tsunami, 2004, claimed 61 lives. Overall, storms account for 11% of disasters in Myanmar Cyclones Myanmar experiences cyclones and associated sea waves. Prior to 2000, the Rakhine Basin coastal areas were impacted by cyclones once in approximately three years. However since 2000, cyclones have impacted Myanmar s coast every year. The life span of a cyclone is usually less than a week. Cyclones, once generated, move generally westward heading to India or, if there is slight re-curvature, they head towards Bangladesh. If the recurvature is sudden, then they move towards the Myanmar coast. A cyclone is usually accompanied by three destructive forces: strong winds (as high as 190kph), heavy rains (more than 127mm in 24 hours) and storm surges (higher than 3.3m). Storm surge is the main cause of damage, which depends on the vulnerability of the place of landfall. Annually, there are approximately 10 tropical storms in the Bay of Bengal from April to December. Severe cyclones occur during the pre-monsoon period of April to May and post-monsoon period of October to December. The Bay of Bengal has two cyclone seasons annually - about a month before and three months after the South-west Monsoon. From 1887 to 2005, 1,248 tropical storms formed in the Bay of Bengal, of which 80 storms (6.4% of total) hit the Myanmar coast. April and May account for 18% and 30% of the cyclones, respectively, while October and November each accounts for 18% of the cyclones that hit Myanmar. The Department of Meteorology and Hydrology suggests that the month of May has the highest number of cyclones that have crossed the coast (24 out of 89 cyclones). In the last four decades alone, several major cyclones have severely affected Myanmar: they are the 1968 Sittwe Cyclone, the 1975 Pathein Cyclone, the 1982 Gwa Cyclone, the 1994 Maundaw Cyclone, the 2006 Mala Cyclone, the 2008 Nargis Cyclone, and the 2010 Giri Cyclone. The Nargis Cyclone, the most devastating cyclone in the living memory of Myanmar, resulted in approximately 140,000 1 people dead and missing in the Ayeyarwady Delta. An estimated 2.4 million people suffered the partial or complete loss of their homes or livelihoods (MAPDRR). 1 The Myanmar Government stopped reporting figures once the death toll reached 138,000 Page 5-8

88 According to the data, 35 cyclones have made landfall on the Myanmar coast with the highest probability, in percentage terms, at Sittwe (20.8%), followed by Maundaw (9.6%) and decreasing towards the south with 3.2% at the Ayeyarwady Delta (UNDP Myanmar; ADPC; GRIP; UNDP, September 2011) Storm Surge Storm surge is the extraordinary flooding due to a storm. It generally occurs due to waves generated by the strong winds in monsoonal storms. The slope of the coastline is an important factor determining the severity of storm surge. The storm surge or flooding accompanying a cyclone largely depends on its path and the place of landfall. The following factors are some of those influencing the potentiality of high storm surge in an area: altitude above mean sea level; distance from the sea; water volume of nearby source of surge; nature of the river mouth; and route of the storm and interaction with tributaries. The maximum observed storm surge height as a result of Cyclone Nargis was 7m at Pyinsalu and 6.7m at Kyonkadun on the Ayeyarwady delta. A 4m storm surge was observed along the Rakhine Coast. The significant cyclone events between 1975 and 2000, Pathein (1975), Gwa (1982), Thandwe (1992) and Sittwe (1994) experienced similar maximum storm surges. The coastal regions of Ayeyarwady Division and Rakhine State are prone to storm surge. During Cyclone Nargis, 90% of the fatalities were as a direct consequence of the storm surge Tsunamis In Myanmar there were records of moderate tsunamis, generated by two large magnitude earthquakes, which originated in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands. [These are 31 December 1881 Car Nicobar Earthquake (7.9 Richter scale [RS]) and 26 June 1941 Andaman Island Earthquake (7.7 RS)]. The tsunami generated by the giant 2004 Sumatra Earthquake also caused moderate damage in some parts of the Myanmar Coast. It is evident that Myanmar is vulnerable to hazards from moderate and large tsunami along its long coastline. Previous Indian Ocean tsunamis have not been properly documented. The northern Rakhine Coast, adjacent to Bangladesh, consists of some large offshore islands, and the near-shore areas between these and the coastline are marshy and partly covered with mangrove forests. This setting therefore provides partial protection from tsunami waves. However, the southern Rakhine Coast is generally rocky and sandy and has three popular resort areas. Thus, this area is comparatively more vulnerable to the tsunami hazard. Recent paleo-seismological studies by joint Myanmar-Japanese teams in the northern Rakhine Coast revealed the presence of at least three raised marine terraces with radiocarbon dates ranging from 1400 BC to 1860 AD. The studies also revealed that there were at least three great earthquakes (including the 1762 earthquake) in that general region in the past 3,400 years. The probable earthquake and tsunami hazards along the Myanmar coastal areas are summarised in Table 5-4 and AD-5 falls within the moderate seismic zone as shown in Figure 5-6. Page 5-9

89 Table 5-4: Probable Earthquake and Tsunami Hazards along the Myanmar Coastal Areas Coastal Region Area Earthquake Hazard Tsunami Hazard (Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale) Rakhine Coast Northern Part Strong Zone with MMI 8 Moderate* Southern Part Moderate Zone with MMI 7 Moderate Delta Area Ayeyarwady Delta Moderate Zone with MMI 7 Moderate Sittaung Estuary Severe Zone with MMI 8-9 Moderate Tanintharyi Coast Northern Part Moderate Zone with MMI 7 Moderate Southern Part Moderate Zone with MMI 7 Light** Source: Hazard Profile of Myanmar, 2009 Figure 5-6: Tsunami Risk in the Bay of Bengal Source: World Tsunami Zones ( Page 5-10

90 5.2.4 Oceanography and Hydrography Bathymetry The Project operational area lies within the Rakhine Basin, located in the eastern fringe of the Bay of Bengal and western coastal province of Myanmar. Adjacent off-shore features to the basin include the Bay of Bengal and the associated Bengal Fan deposits to the west, The Ayeyarwady Delta and associated Moattama Offshore Basin to the South, and the Andaman-Nicobar Trench and associated island arc to the south (Figure 5-7). The Rakhine Basin is approximately 850km long and 200km wide. Water depths range from ~200m to 2,450m. Figure 5-7: Myanmar Offshore Basins Source: North Petro-Chem Corporation (Myanmar) Ltd. Presentation on Deepwater Petroleum Geology, Rakhine Offshore Basin, Myanmar The primary bathymetry feature of the Rakhine Basin is the West Burma Scarp (WBS) as shown in Figure 5.8. The WBS is formed where the Indian Plate is subducted under the Burma-Andaman Platelet. The AD-5 is located at the base of the WBS and extends into the abyssal plain of the Bengal Basin with an average depth of 2,500m (refer to Figure 5-8). Some mud volcanoes are indicated by Nielsen et. al. (2004) to be located at the base of the WBS as indicated at the southwest end of seismic transect ANDA 50 and are also noted in Block A-7 to the north east. The presence of potential mud volcanoes at the base of slope in AD-5 is unknown but are likely to be a low elevation and not a major bathymetric feature if present. Page 5-11

91 Figure 5-8: Bathymetric Profile of the Central West Burma Scarp (WBS) Source: Nielsen et al Page 5-12

92 Tides and Currents In the wider region, surface currents in the Bay of Bengal generally move in a clockwise direction from January to July and counter-clockwise from August to December. Currents in the north-east near the Project area generally persist longer as a result of stronger monsoon winds that blow from the southwest. Available data (Swannathatsa et al 2012) indicates that the predominant tidal currents run perpendicular to the coastline. Up-welling and down-welling events are seasonal and created by monsoon winds that come from the southwest during summer and northeast during the winter. As a result, up-welling along the Myanmar coast occurs in winter with down-welling in summer. The duration and intensity of vertical movement of water on both the western and eastern sides of the Bay of Bengal is relatively low compared to similar phenomena along the African or South American coasts Geology and Sediments Regional Geology The Rakhine Basin lies in the active ocean-continent convergent/transitional plate boundary zone where Indian Plate is subducting beneath the Myanmar Plate. It is bounded in the east by the Indo- Burman Ophiolite Belt and continues to the north as Bengal Basin in Bangladesh. It merges in the south with the Andaman-Nicober-Sunda-Java Foredeep basins (refer to Figure 5-9). The Rakhine Basin is located at the boundary between the northward migrating Australian-Indian Plate (Bay of Bengal), and the Burma-Andaman platelet in the south of the Rakhine Basin and the Arakan-Yoma accretionary wedge in the north. The Burma-Andaman platelet is a narrow sliver plate that developed during the Cenozoic along the India-Sunda plate boundary (Rangin 2012) and forms the main geological unit of the eastern Rakhine Basin. In Myanmar, the contact between the Burma and Sunda plates occurs as a major dextral fault, known as the Sagaing fault, which in the south of the country connects to the Andaman rift. The dominant feature of the Rakhine Basin is the West Burma Scarp formed by the boundary between the Indian plate and Burma-Andaman platelet. The WBS, being the western boundary of the Burmese Platelet is described as an accretionary Prism consisting of Paleogene sedimentary, metasedimentary, intrusive and volcanic rocks (Wandrey 2006) as indicated in Figure Air Quality No air quality scientific study has been performed on the air quality within AD-5. Nevertheless, taking into account the distance between the Project operational area and the coast and due to low level of anthropogenic activities in the vicinity (excluding marine traffic) the air quality within AD-5 is expected to be of high quality. However, there is a north-south oriented commercial shipping lane on the eastern boundary of AD-5 where there will likely be temporary slightly elevated level of gases and particulates that are a byproduct of internal combustion engines. Page 5-13

93 Figure 5-9: Regional Geology of Myanmar Source: Wandrey, 2006 Page 5-14

94 5.2.7 Noise The ambient, or background, sound levels that make up the ocean soundscape result from the contribution of many natural and anthropogenic sources (Figure 5-10). Environmental sources of sound are predominately wind, rain, and sea ice. Wind-generated noise in the ocean is well studied (e.g. Wenz 1962, Ross 1976), and surf noise is shown to be an important contributor to near-shore soundscapes. Precipitation is a commonly occurring source of noise, with contributions typically concentrated at frequencies above 500Hz. At low frequencies (<100Hz), earthquakes and other seismic activities contribute to the soundscape. Biological sources of sound are diverse. Invertebrates, snapping shrimp in particular, can be a significant source of sound in shallow waters and at higher frequencies (Cato 1992, Richardson et al. 1995). Snapping shrimp can increase background noise by a factor of 10 (20dB) in the 500Hz to 20kHz frequency band (Hildebrand 2009). Many fish species are known to produce sounds, either individually or in choruses. Chorusing fish can temporarily elevate the background sound levels by greater than tenfold in the frequency band between 100 and 2000Hz (Cato 1992, Zelick et al. 1999). The best-documented biological contributors to the ocean soundscape are marine mammals. All studied cetacean and pinniped species produce sounds. Their sounds range in frequency from 15Hz for Blue (Balaenoptera musculus) and Fin (Balaenoptera physalus) whale vocalizations to 130kHz for some porpoise and dolphin vocalizations (Richardson et al. 1995). Sounds from baleen whales can double the background noise levels within their frequency bands and persist for extended periods of time (e.g. McDonald et al. 2008) Marine Water Quality The Bay of Bengal receives large amounts of freshwater through river discharges and heavy rainfall events, especially during the summer monsoon season. This input of freshwater results in a water layer of up to 100m deep and 1,500km long that is warm, low in salinity, high in nutrients and is oxygen-rich Temperature and Salinity The large volume of freshwater discharge by the major rivers plays an important role in inducing lower salinity and higher temperature of the mixed layer (between 14 and 49m) in the western and eastern areas of the Bay of Bengal. Environmental hypoxia (where dissolved oxygen is <0.5ml/l) occurs at approximately 200m and deeper in the northern side of the Bay of Bengal. In the oceans this is often termed the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ). Surface water (shallower than 400m) in the Bay of Bengal comprises three water masses. These are Bay of Bengal water (salinity PSU [Practical Salinity Unit]), Andaman Sea water (salinity PSU), and Indian Central water (salinity more than 35 PSU). This freshwater cap has profound implications on the air-ocean exchanges, and thus on the climate of the neighbouring continents. Firstly, the enhanced vertical stability of the upper surface layer is conducive to a trapping of the atmospheric heat at the ocean surface, and maintains high sea surface temperatures (SST) throughout the year (Han and McCreary 2001); (Shenoi et al. 2002). These high SST s, in turn, are believed to favour atmospheric convective activity and freshwater supply, thereby creating a positive feedback loop. In particular, it is theorized that the salinity stratification retards the oceanic cooling effect during the development of atmospheric cyclones, hence favouring intense cyclones (Sengupta et al. 2008; Neetu et al. 2012). Page 5-15

95 Figure 5-10: Wenz Curves Describing Pressure Spectral Density Levels of Marine Ambient Noise from Weather, Wind, Geologic Activity and Commercial Shipping Note: Thick lines indicate limits of prevailing noises Source: National Research Council (2003), adapted from Wenz (1962) Page 5-16

96 Secondly, salinity also has the potential to influence the amplitude of intra-seasonal variability of the SST in the northern part of the Bay (Vinayachandran et al. 2012). The SST in winter is a minimum of 24 C in the north and a maximum of 28 C in the south as well as a subsequent post-monsoon warming phase with a minimum of 28 C in the north and a maximum of 29 C in the south. During the summer monsoon the minimum and maximum SST are 28 C in the south and 29 C in the north. A warm pool (28 C) occurs from April to October, and has been observed in previous studies (Murty et al. 1998). This warming of the central basin is caused by the trapping of Kelvin waves in the central Bay of Bengal for many months and it is ideal for generating cyclones (Saheb et al. 2009). The salinity in the Bay of Bengal is significantly lower in comparison with the rest of the Indian Ocean. It is highly heterogeneous with extremely fresh waters found at the surface in the north and northeastern parts. This is due to excess freshwater supply from both continental rivers (20%) the Ganges-Brahmaputra and Ayeyarwady rivers are the main contributors and from oceanic precipitation (80%). The south-central Bay of Bengal is saltier. However, the oceanic precipitation and Ganges Brahmaputra waters are exported to the southern part of the bay via the western boundary of the basin. By contrast, Ayeyarwady waters remain trapped in the northern half of the Andaman basin (Benshila et al. 2013) Chlorophyll-a Phytoplankton is a primary producer which converts inorganic matter into organic compounds by means of photosynthesis. This enables the transfer of energy and nutrients to the zooplankton. Considering that planktonic organisms have short life cycles and can quickly respond to changing environments, such as in the case of water pollution, some phytoplankton species may be used as indicators for indirectly monitoring water quality. Chlorophyll is a principal pigment which phytoplankton use in photosynthesis to convert nutrients and carbon dioxide (which are dissolved in sea water) into plant materials. Chlorophyll-a, b and c and phaeophytin are the most commonly-occurring pigments in seawater. Chlorophyll-a is the major photosynthetic pigment of marine phytoplankton that is used as an indicator of biomass or primary productivity in the oceans (Beebe 2008). The distribution of chlorophyll in the Bay of Bengal was determined during a joint research survey conducted as part of Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management in the Bay of Bengal by the M/V SEAFDEC from 25 th October 2007 to 21 st December Of the 25 stations included in this field survey, the closest ones to AD-5 are stations 13 to 15 (Figure 5-11). Water samples were obtained at four different depths (2m, 10m, 125m, 200/ 250m below the surface) and from the seabed. The concentrations of chlorophyll-a at stations 13 to 15 are tabulated in Table 5-5. Chlorophyll-a has a similar spatial distribution pattern to salinity. Most of the more southerly stations exhibited somewhat higher chlorophyll-a concentrations than those stations further north. The water samples taken from depths of 2m and 10m show a clear trend of chlorophyll-a concentrations decreasing from south to north. The chlorophyll-a concentrations at 2m and 10m ranged from to and to mg/m 3, respectively. Most of sampling stations had higher concentrations at 10m than at 2m depth. Almost all stations deeper than 100m had lower concentration of chlorophyll-a than those nearer the ocean surface. Page 5-17

97 Figure 5-11: Chlorophyll Sampling Stations in the Bay of Bengal Source: Adapted from the Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management in the Bay of Bengal Page 5-18

98 Table 5-5: Station No. Concentrations of Chlorophyll-a (mg/m 3 ) for Stations 13 to 15 Observed at Various Depths Chlorophyll-a 1 st Depth (2m) 2 nd Depth (10m) 3 rd Depth (125m) 4 th Depth (200m/ 250m)* Note: * Station No. 13 and m; Station No m Ecological Conditions For the purposes of this section on marine ecology, the baseline review has considered the following attributes: general hydrodynamics; offshore plankton - both phytoplankton and zooplankton; ocean invertebrates; ocean elasmobranchs and fishes (discussion on commercially important species is contained within the fisheries section of the document); seabirds; and marine mammals Habitats and Marine Environments To assess the likelihood of individual species being present in each survey block, the available habitats were broadly classified and compared with known habitat preferences of individual species. In order to do this practically, the depth strata in specific areas (e.g. pelagic and mesopelagic zones of the open ocean) were considered less useful than broad habitat classification based on seabed bathymetry. The latter is generally used for marine mammal habitat descriptions and often adequately describes where marine mammal species are likely to be found near the water s surface. Considering the boundaries of the operational area for the Project, the following habitat classification is used in this section (as represented in Figure 5-12): Oceanic: Waters of the open ocean above the abyssal plain, seaward of the continental rise. Marine habitats can also be further classified on the basis of other seabed features (such as seamounts and canyons), depth, oceanography, productivity or benthic communities present. Page 5-19

99 Figure 5-12: Schematic Cross-section of Ocean Bathymetry from Shoreline to Beyond the Continental Shelf Showing Categories Types Used to Summarise Species Habitat Associations Source: Dr Glenn Dunshea General Hydrodynamics The Deltaic Coastal Zone consists of three major rivers, the Ayeyarwady, Sittaung and Thanlwin (Figure 5-2). The Ayeyarwady region lies at the central part of the coastal area comprising land area of 35,138km 2. It is bounded by the southern waters of the Andaman Sea of the Bay of Bengal. Apart from the western part of the zone, which is adjacent to Rakhine Yoma, the region is a flat alluvial plain with a network of tributaries of the Ayeyarwady River. These rivers together with the Sittaung and Thanlwin deposited an annual sediment discharge of the Ayeyarwady River of approximately 250 million tons (Pe 2014). The surface water off the Ayeyarwady Delta Coast is usually extensively mixed with freshwater originating from river runoff after the rainy season until September/ October and corresponds with the yearly runoff. Low saline surface water with salinities less than 20ppt are observed from the Delta region northward along the Rakhine Coast, indicating a west and northward transport of the coastal water masses (Pe 2014). During spring, when the river runoff is a minimum, the conditions are reversed. The highest surface layer salinities (>33ppt) are observed in near shore just off the Thanlwin river delta to the south-east of the Project operational area. This large seasonal variation of salinity depends on the freshwater inflow to the Delta region (India-Myanmar Joint Oceanographic Studies ). Significant change in the hydrographic conditions of intermediate and deeper water masses from autumn to spring are also observed along the Myanmar coast (Pe 2014). In autumn the transition layer between the upper homogenous water masses in deep water are found at depths between 70 and 150m, while in spring the transition layer occurs much closer to the surface at depth from 20 to 100m all along the coast (India-Myanmar Joint Oceanographic Studies ). Large areas of the shelf, which in autumn show layers of temperature and oxygen content higher than 26ºC and 3ml/l at the bottom where during spring the ocean bottom covered with water of lower temperature (<23ºC) and less oxygen content (<2ml/l). The temperature gradients observed may indicate a shore-ward movement of the bottom waters on the shelf with corresponding upwelling in the near shore areas during spring. In particular, this seems to be pronounced off both the Rakhine and Ayeyarwady regions and is likely to be significant in the fisheries biomass observed during this time. Significant seasonal variations in hydrographic conditions occur both in the surface and substrate layers in the continental shelf: a variation which in turn may cause fluctuation in fish distribution patterns horizontally (India-Myanmar Joint Oceanographic Studies ). In deeper waters, Page 5-20

100 at depth greater than m below the transition layer zone, the hydrographic conditions were observed to be more stable (India-Myanmar Joint Oceanographic Studies ) Habitats The operational area for AD-5 is located at approximately 100km north-west of Diamond Island and about 95km from the nearest mainland of Myanmar. It is within a deep water zone where there are no coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass, estuarine or shoreline transition-zone habitats within the area of influence (AOl). This zone is relatively unproductive as compared with the coastal area due to lack of nutrients. The major habitat types include a low-productivity pelagic zone and deep water benthic ecosystems. It is believed that major taxa found in the pelagic zone are expected to be mobile or transient like oceanic shark, tuna and whale while the demersal communities are dominated by crab, prawn, shrimp, rays, skates and flatfish Biodiversity Biodiversity refers to the variety of species that are expected to be located in any given area, in this case the Bay of Bengal and more specifically the Project operational area. It is important to understand the conservation status of species may interact with the Project. In order to represent the vulnerability of species that have been identified with the Project operational area, reference is made to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. The Red List represents a comprehensive inventory of global species, noting their conservation status in a number of categories as represented in Table 5-6. Table 5-6: IUCN Red List Categories Table Abbreviation Category EX EW CR EN VU NT LC Extinct Extinct in the Wild Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Near Threatened Least Concern Elasmobranchs and Fishes There is a large variety of elasmobranchs (sharks, rays and skates - cartilaginous fishes) within the Bay of Bengal generally. The SEAFDEC (2004) stated that Spot-tail shark (Carcharhinus sorrah); Graceful shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides); Spinner shark (Carcharhinus brevipinna); Blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus); Blacktip shark (Carcharhinus limbatus); Whitecheek shark (Carcharhinus dussumieri); Silvertip shark (Carcharhinus albimarginatus); Borneo shark (Carcharhinus borneensis); Silky shark (Carcharhinus falciformis); Sandbar shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus); Pigeye shark (Carcharhinus amboinensis); Milk shark (Rhizoprionodon acutus); Grey sharpnose shark (Rhizoprionodon oligolinx); Sliteye shark (Loxodon macrorhinus); Ganges shark (Glyphis gangeticus); White-tip Rreef shark (Triaenodon obesus); Great Hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran); Winghead shark (Eusphyra blochii); Tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier); Dusky catshark (Halaelurus canescens); and the Brownbanded bambooshark (Chiloscyllium punctatum) are observed in Myanmar waters. Page 5-21

101 Whale sharks have also been recorded in the eastern Bay of Bengal and in Myanmar waters to the south of the survey area in the Andaman Sea (Theberge and Dearden 2006) and are extremely wideranging (Eckert et al. 2002). With respect to rays, White-spotted eagle ray (Aetobatus narinari), Sharpnose guitarfish (Glaucostegus granulatus), Pink whipray (Himantura fai), Giant Manta ray (Manta birostris), Indian Ringed skate (Okamejei powelli), Widenose guitarfish (Rhinobatos obtusus) and Blotched fantail ray (Taeniurops meyeni), which are identified to be oceanic in the IUCN Red List, 2015 have been recorded in Myanmar s waters. These species may potentially occur in AD-5. Limited targeted research had been conducted on the deep sea fish population in Myanmar s marine water. In 1982, the extensive deep sea survey conducted by R.V. Dr. Fridjof Nansen under the UNDP/FAO project indicated that catch composition in the EEZ of Myanmar as well as in the continental shelf are dominance by three deep-sea fish species, namely Peristedon weberi, Chlorophathalmus sp. and Palinurichtus pringiei (SEAFDEC, 2010). While the Collaborative Marine Fishery Resources Survey in Myanmar Water by scientist from Myanmar and SEAFDEC in 2007 indicated that swordfish (Xiphias gladius), Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), Striped marlin (Tetrapturus audax) and sailfish (Istiophorus platypterus) are rich in Myanmar waters (SEAFDEC, 2010). The research of SEAFDEC in 2008 also indicated that oceanic fishes from Families of Exocoetidae, Gempylidae, Myctophidae, Paralepididae, Photichthyidae and Stomiidae are found in the deep water of the Bay of Bengal (Lirdwitayaprasit, et al, 2008). These fishes are likely to be found within the AD-5. There are over 100 fish species listed as vulnerable in Myanmar waters and many of them are species of sharks. Most species of shark are threatened by intensive fishing pressure for fins and meat. The Department of Fisheries has made a special effort to create marine protected areas primarily to conserve sharks (Wildlife Conservation Society, 2013). Images of some elasmobranchs found in the Bay of Bengal are shown in Plate 5-1. Plate 5-1: Images of Elasmobranchs a) Bull shark (source: Shane Gross, Shutterstock.com) b) Round ribbontail ray (source aquapix, Shutterstock.com) c) Galeocerdo cuvier d) Whale shark (source: magnusdeepbelow, Shutterstock.com) Page 5-22

102 e) Blacktip Reef shark (source Shutterstock.com) f) Whitetip reef shark (source Ethan Daniels, Shutterstock.com) Marine Turtles The offshore waters of Myanmar and coastal areas provide habitat for marine turtles. Of the seven marine turtles recognised internationally, five species regularly breed on Myanmar's beaches including the Olive Ridley turtle (Lepoidochely olivacea - Leik Lyaung), Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta Leik Khway), Green turtle (Chelonia mydas Pyin Tha Leik), Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata Leik Kyet Tu Yway); and Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea Leik Zaung Lyar). Both the Hawksbill Turtle and Leatherback turtle are considered rare (Lwin, 2010; Lwin, 2011, Myint, 2007). Given that AD-5 is relatively far from the coastline, any turtles present in the operational area of AD-5 are likely to be transiting through the area on a temporary basis. Images of some marine turtles are shown in Plate Phytoplankton A total of 58 genera with 135 species were identified from the samples collected in the surface layer during the Andaman Sea Fisheries Research and Development Centre on Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management in the Bay of Bengal survey. Further work has also been undertaken by Cho (2011) and Shein and Kyi Win (2012). The identified phytoplankton consisted of three species of oscillatoroids, five species of bacillaroids, four species of prorocentroids, nine species of dinophysoids, 20 species of gonyaulacoids, eight species of peridinoids, two species of peridinoids, three species of gymnodinoids and noctilucoids, five species of ceratoids and four species of dinococcoids (Cho 2011; Shein and Kyi Win 2012). Page 5-23

103 Plate 5-2: Images of Marine Turtles a) Green turtle (source Kristina Vackova, Shutterstock.com) b) Hawksbill turtle (source Andrey Armyagov, Shutterstock.com) c) Leatherback turtle (source IrinaK, Shutterstock.com) Zooplankton Zooplankton includes both planktonic or microscopic invertebrates and larval stages of some marine fishes that rely on water currents to move any great distance. Zooplankton refers to a range of organism including both small protozoans and large metazoans. Zooplankton includes holoplanktonic organisms whose complete life cycle are solely within a planktonic environment; and meroplanktonic organisms that spend part of their life cycle in the plankton before metamorphosis to either nekton or sessile, benthic existence. Through its consumption and processing of phytoplankton (and other food sources), zooplankton plays an important role in aquatic food webs as a resource for consumers on higher trophic levels such as fishes and marine mammals. The Andaman Sea Fisheries Research and Development Centre on Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management in the Bay of Bengal survey identified 205 species, 119 genera and 44 taxa of zooplankton. Copepods were the most diverse group containing the highest number of species (98), followed by Cnidaria (32) and Protozoa (25). The taxa that were not identified to generic or species levels included Polychaeta, mollusc larvae, Mysidacea, decapod larvae, larval stages of Copepoda, cyphonautes larvae, Echinodermata larvae and fish larvae. Win (1993) and Shein and Kyi Win (2012) who included larvae identified four protozoans, 109 species of Coelenterata, one species of Annelida, six species of Chaetognatha, 27 species of Arthropoda and four species of Protochordata Seabirds Seabirds breed on land while depending on the marine environment for food (Balance, 2004). Seabirds are top predators in a marine ecosystem, sharing or competing for prey with marine mammals and predatory fish (Parsons, 2008). Small pelagic fish are known to regulate the seabird populations and may therefore signal environmental induced fluctuations in prey availability (Birkhead 1985; Hunt 1986; Durant 2009). The Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME), which Page 5-24

104 generally has low seabird numbers and biomass is home to nine species of terns, one of the most threatened bird group worldwide (Mondreti 2013). These species are known to breed in various marine habitats of Andaman and Nicobar islands and coastal areas of mainland (Mondreti 2013). A total of 20 ocean seabird species are currently identified as occurring in Myanmar waters (Table 5-7). Amongst these species, four species are listed as near threatened (NT) and 16 species are listed as least concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List. Additionally, 61 species of birds live in the coastal zone although there is limited data on their use of the marine environment. Taking into account the typical habitat of these seabirds, a number of seabird species could potentially occur within the Project operational area. Images of some seabirds found in Myanmar are shown in Plate 5-3. Table 5-7: Seabirds of Myanmar Common name Scientific name Red List Category Brown Noddy Anous stolidus LC Greater Scaup Aythya marila LC Common Goldeneye Bucephala clangula LC Common Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica LC Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia LC Brown-headed Gull Larus brunnicephalus LC Pallas's Gull Larus ichthyaetus LC Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus LC Goosander Mergus merganser LC Sooty Tern Onychoprion fuscatus LC Great White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus LC White-tailed Tropicbird Phaethon lepturus LC Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo LC Indian Cormorant Phalacrocorax fuscicollis LC Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus LC Pomarine Jaeger Stercorarius pomarinus LC Common Tern Sterna hirundo LC Black-naped Tern Sterna sumatrana LC Little Tern Sternula albifrons LC Brown Booby Sula leucogaster LC Lesser Crested Tern Thalasseus bengalensis LC Greater Crested Tern Thalasseus bergii LC Source: Birdlife International - search undertaken June 2015 Page 5-25

105 Plate 5-3: Images of Seabirds a) Brown noddy (source nitrogenic.com, Shutterstock.com) b) Common goldeneye (source Maria Gaellman, Shutterstock.com) c) Black-headed gull (source Sergey Uryadnikov, Shutterstock.com) d) Great white pelican (source Ekaterina Kamenetsky, Shutterstock.com) e) White-tailed tropicbird (source Serge Vero, Shutterstock.com) f) Great crested grebe (source Menno Schaefer, Shutterstock.com) g) Brown booby (source Gillian Holliday, Shutterstock.com) h) Greater crested tern (source Butterfly Hunter, Shutterstock.com) Page 5-26

106 Marine Mammals There are two broad groups of marine mammals possibly present in Myanmar waters, cetaceans (whales and dolphins) and sirenians (dugongs and manatees). Dugong habitat generally consists of waters associated with seagrass beds close to the coast (Marsh, 2002). Although individuals are known to undertake long-distance movements and cross ocean trenches, they are rarely documented in waters > 40m depth (Marsh 2002). There are seagrass beds along the Ayerwarwady coastline, which implies that these mammals are likely to be found. However, it is considered highly unlikely that any dugongs would be present in the Project operational area, given the survey will take place beyond the continental slope in waters deeper than 2,000m. There are 93 currently recognised species of Cetaceans worldwide, although the taxonomic status of some species is unclear (Perrin, 2015). Cetaceans are split into two major lineages that differ extensively in appearance and habits: the baleen whales (Order Mysticeti) and toothed whales (Order Odontoceti). There are 14 species of baleen whales (Perrin, 2015). They inhabit all the world s ocean basins and are among the largest animals ever known to exist (Jefferson et al 2011). Baleen whales are so-named because each species has baleen plates in their mouths that are used for filtering prey from water. Most baleen whale species undertake extensive annual migrations from high latitude summer feeding grounds to low latitudes where breeding and nursing takes place. Toothed whales have teeth rather than baleen plates to capture prey and have a large variation in size, from smaller than an average adult human to as large as some baleen whales (Jefferson et al 2011). There are 79 species of toothed whales that are broadly split into dolphins, beaked whales and sperm whales (Perrin, 2015). Although some species of toothed whale undergo annual migrations, many are considered to reside in localised areas and regions year-round. This section outlines the current state of knowledge regarding marine mammals possibly present in and around the Project operational area. There are few scientific studies documenting the habits of marine mammals in the Bay of Bengal and no published accounts of systematic surveys for marine mammals within the Project operational area or surrounding waters. Data presented in this section are compiled based on information in resources that have summarised from primary literature and historical records. These include reference volumes (Carwardine, 1995; Perrin and Wursig, 2002; Jefferson et al 2011; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu, 2012), online resources from the United Nations, government agencies, professional societies and NGO s (IUCN website; Convention of Migratory Species website; US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries website; World Register of Marine Species website; Marine Mammal Conservation Network of India website), United Nations and NGO published reports (De Boer 2002; Marsh 2002; Culik 2004) and peer-reviewed scientific journal articles where available (Smith and Tun, 2008; Chit et al. 2012; Ilangakoon and Anoukchika, 2012; Jefferson and Rosenbaum, 2014). AD-5 is situated to the west of the Ayeryawady region coastline and the Project operational area is approximately 95km off the coast in waters at the nearest point ranging from 2,300m to ~ 2,800m depth. All species in Myanmar waters may potentially be encountered in the Project operational area (Table 5-8). However, similar to dugongs, it is considered highly unlikely that the coastal and estuarine/ riverine species (Finless porpoise, Irrawaddy dolphin, Indo-Pacific Humpback dolphin) will be encountered as these species usually stay in close proximity to coastlines. Images of marine mammals found in the Bay of Bengal are depicted in Plate 5-4. There is no further information regarding local/ regional abundance, distribution or movement patterns to evaluate the likelihood of species presence in the Project operational area. Page 5-27

107 Plate 5-4: Images of Marine Mammals a) Risso s dolphin (source Tory Kallman, Shutterstock.com) b) Killer whale (orca) (source Monika Wieland, Shutterstock.com) c) Humpback whale (source Joost van Uffelen, Shutterstock.com) d) Sperm whale (source Catmando, Shutterstock.com) e) Striped dolphin (source Andrea Izzotti, Shutterstock.com) f) Spinner dolphin (source Anna Segeren, Shutterstock.com) Cetaceans of Myanmar To assess the probable presence of cetaceans in the Project operational area, sighting, stranding and species distribution records were searched for eastern Bay of Bengal waters overlapping the Project operational area. Records from the entire Bay of Bengal were also included since many cetaceans have geographically extensive distributions and individuals, extensive ranges (Horton et al. 2011; Jefferson et al. 2011). Page 5-28

108 There is evidence for the possible presence of 32 species of cetaceans in Myanmar waters (Table 5-8). These species are comprised of seven baleen whales, five beaked whales, three large delphinids, 14 smaller delphinids (commonly, dolphins and porpoises) and three sperm whale species. Although there are some anomalous records such as the stranding of a strapped tooth beaked whale in Myanmar waters (Chit et al. 2012) beyond areas where it was expected to be found, this list probably represents a minimum of cetacean species possibly present in Myanmar waters. Cetacean range data are considered approximate due to sparse information sources. Estimated range limits in reference material are thus probably more likely to represent a lack of search effort rather than true distribution limits (Jefferson et al. 2011). A brief description of each whale group or species (where relevant) is provided along with relevant local or regional notes if available. If the group or species is specifically mentioned under IAGC or JNCC guidelines (e.g. deep diving species), this is also noted. Myanmar Baleen Whales Baleen whales are considered Low frequency Cetaceans (LFC) in terms of the auditory bandwidth the group hears and vocalizes within (7Hz to 22 khz: Southall et al. 2007) and the potential impacts from anthropogenic sources (see Section 6.2). Blue, Humpback, Minke, Brydes/ Sittang, Omura's, Sei and Fin baleen whales are possibly present in Myanmar waters (Table 5-8). All these species are from the cetacean family Balaenopteridae, collectively known as rorquals. The general wisdom regarding many of these baleen whales (Blue, Humpback, Sei and Fin) is that they migrate from high latitude summer feeding grounds to low latitude winter breeding grounds annually. However, genetic and acoustic studies are indicate that some northern Indian Ocean (NIO) large whales (Blue whales, Humpback whales) are distinct from their southern hemisphere conspecifics and are likely to be resident year-round in NIO waters (Rudolph and Smeenk 2009 and references therein). Anderson et al. (2012) show that NIO Blue whales are present year-round in tropical waters and appear to migrate eastwards past Sri Lanka around December January, and back westwards a few months later around April May. It is not known what proportion of these whales cross to the eastern Bay of Bengal or if any do at all. Since most rorquals (Blue, Humpback, Sei, Fin, Brydes/ Sittang and Omura s whales) are generally associated with regions of high productivity (Jefferson et al. 2011), it may be possible to infer a relatively higher likelihood of their presence from oceanographic features that result in high productivity, in the absence of any other information. Upwelling of bottom water is one such feature (Lalli and Parsons, 1997) and appears on the continental slope and shelf in areas both to the north (the Rakhine coast) and south (the delta region) of the Project operational area between March-May (Pe 2014). If these monsoonal forced, regular upwelling events do attract baleen whales, it may be they are more likely to be present around the Project operational area during and/or either side of these local upwelling periods than any other time. This upwelling period off the Myanmar coast is between the time periods where Blue whales are likely to be present in the Bay of Bengal and thus the possibility of use of these areas by NIO Blue whales is consistent with their known migration phenology. At the same time, it should also be noted that there are other large areas (e.g. India s east coast) with well-documented regional upwelling during the same winter/spring period in the Bay of Bengal (Krishna 2008). It is probably less likely that Sei, Fin and Omura s whales are encountered compared to any other baleen whale possibly present. Omura s whales are mostly known from South-east Asian seas, with no stranding or sighting records in the Bay of Bengal. Sei and Fin whales are considered uncommon in tropical waters (Rudolph and Smeenk 2002), however there have been reported stranding events for each species on the east coast of India throughout the seasons (Marine Mammal Conservation Network of India website) indicating their possible presence in the wider Bay of Bengal. Page 5-29

109 Brydes/ Sittang whales are not known to undertake large-scale high to low latitude annual migrations, although some migrations have been documented in offshore forms (Jefferson et al. 2011). They are known to be resident in some of the areas they inhabit (e.g. Tershy 1993), thus there could be both migratory and resident populations of this species present. Bryde s whales are the only baleen whale species recently sighted in eastern Bay of Bengal waters close to the Project operational area (Smith et al 2008; Smith and Tun 2008), possibly indicating they could be the most likely baleen whale species to be encountered. Myanmar Toothed Whales General Description Toothed whales in Myanmar are considered both High-Frequency (both Kogia spp. and the Finless porpoise) and Mid-Frequency Cetaceans (all other Myanmar toothed whales) in terms of the auditory bandwidth the group hears and vocalizes within (Mid: 150 Hz to 160 khz; High: 200 Hz to 180 khz: Southall et al. 2007) and the potential impacts from anthropogenic sources (see Section 6.2). There are 25 species of toothed whales possibly present in Myanmar waters (Table 5-8). Beaked Whales There are at least five species of beaked whales possibly present in Myanmar waters with only one species record from Myanmar waters, considered to be beyond what is normally considered their habitat (Table 5-8; Chit et al. 2012). Beaked whales are medium-sized whales (adult length 3-13m) that usually live in deep, open ocean waters or around continental slopes (Mead 2009; Pitman 2009). They are generally considered rare as they are seldom sighted at sea and many species are known only from sparse stranding records (Mead 2009). They can dive to depths exceeding 2900m for periods exceeding two hours (Schorr et al. 2014), although more typically dives last between minutes (NOAA fisheries website; Schorr et al. 2014). This species group is therefore considered deep-divers under the JNCC guidelines. Large Delphinids There are three species of large delphinids possibly present in the Project operational area: Killer whales, False killer whales and Short-finned Pilot whales (Table 5-8). These large delphinids are medium sized (adult length m), feed on fish and squid and are known to inhabit most marine waters, from the open ocean to coastal areas (Jefferson et al. 2011). Short-finned Pilot whales are generally considered wide-ranging and abundant (Olsen and Reilly 2009) and there are records of the species from the eastern Bay of Bengal to the south of the Project operational area (North Andaman Coast: Mohabey et al. 2009). Killer whales can be seen in any marine region, although they are more likely to occur in nearshore areas and are more abundant in higher latitude waters (Jefferson et al. 2011). Small Delphinids There are at least 14 species of small delphinds possibly present in the Project operational area (Table 5-8). The smaller delphinids range in size from 1.3-4m (adult length) and are found in all marine habitats, from the open ocean to rivers and estuaries. Most of the small delphinids possibly present in the Project operational area are relatively common cetaceans, such as spinner dolphins and striped dolphins. Sperm Whales There are three species of sperm whales possibly present in the Project operational area (Table 5-8). The two smaller Kogia spp. (Pygmy and Dwarf Sperm whales) range between m (adult length) and the large species Physeter macrocephalus, known simply as Sperm whale, can be grow to m (adult length). Kogia spp. are rarely seen at sea and known mostly from strandings, as such there is very little known about both species. Kogia spp are generally thought to inhabit deep waters and the Pygmy Sperm whale (K. breviceps) may prefer more temperate waters than the Dwarf Page 5-30

110 Sperm whale (Jefferson et al. 2011). The Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus is probably the most widely spread marine mammal species after Killer whales (Jefferson et al. 2011). Although some populations exhibit migratory behaviour, sperm whales in some tropical areas are probably resident (Jefferson et al 2011). Sperm whales usually inhabit deep oceanic and continental slope waters and are usually found in greatest numbers in association with bathymetric features such as the continental slope as well as canyons, seamounts and escarpments (Baumgartner et al. 2001; Gregr and Trites 2001). Sperm whales can dive to depths over 2,000m for up to 90 minutes (Whitehead, 2002) and are considered deep-divers under JNCC guidelines. Page 5-31

111 Table 5-8: Records of Cetaceans and Cetacean Ranges in Bay of Bengal and Eastern Bay of Bengal Waters with Reference Sources indicated IUCN Cat. Abbreviations refer to IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Categories Name Bay of Bengal (B.o.B.) Distribution Likely Habitat Associations IUCN Species Common name B.o.B. East B.o.B. B.o.B. Secondary ** Oceanic Cont. Slope Cont. Shelf Coastal Estuarine/ Riverine Cat. Balaenoptera acutorostrata Minke whale LC B. Balaenoptera borealis Fin whale 5 4, Ul $ (11) EN B. cf. B. omurai Omura's Whale DD B. cf. brydei/edeni* Brydes whale 11,12 4,11,12 4 4,11 4,11 4,11 4,11 DD B. musculus Blue whale 4,9,11 4,9, EN B. physalus Sei whale 5 Ul $ (11) 11 EN Delphinus capensis tropicalis Arabian Common dolphin 4,8,11 4,8, DD Feresa attenuata Pygmy Killer whale 1,3,4,6,8, 11 1,3,4,6,8 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,3,4 DD Globicephala macrorhynchus Short-finned Pilot whale 1,3,4,5,8, 11 1,3,4,5,8 1,3,4 1,3,4 DD Grampus griseus Rissos dolphin 1,3,4,8,11 1,3,4,5,8 1,3,4 1,3,4 1,3,4 LC Indopacetus pacificus Longmans Beaked whale 1,5 4, DD Kogia breviceps Pygmy Ssperm whale 1,3,4,5,8 1,3,4,8 1,4 1,4 DD K. simus Dwarf Sperm whale 1,3,4,5,8 1,3,4,5,8 4 1,4 1,4 DD Page 5-32

112 Name Bay of Bengal (B.o.B.) Distribution Likely Habitat Associations IUCN Species Common name B.o.B. East B.o.B. B.o.B. Secondary ** Oceanic Cont. Slope Cont. Shelf Coastal Estuarine/ Riverine Cat. Lagenodelphis hosei Frasers dolphin 1,4,10,11 1,4 4, LC Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback whale ,11 4,11 LC Mesoplodon densirostris Blainvilles Beaked whale 1,4,5 1,4,5 1,4 1,4,14 DD M. ginkgodens Ginkgo-toothed Beaked whale 1,4,5,6,8 1,4,5,6,8 Pr $ Pr $ DD M. layardii # Strap-toothed Beaked whale # Ul $ (13) 4 DD Neophocaena phocaenoides Finless porpoise 1,4,11,12 1,4,11,12 4,11 4,11 VU Orcaella brevirostris Irrawaddy dolphin 1,4,5,8,11,12 1,4,5,8,11,12 1,4,11 1,4,11 VU Orcinus orca Killer whale 5,8, DD Peponocephala electra Melon-headed whale 1,4,5,8,11 1,4,5,8 4,11 4,11 4 LC Physeter macrocephalus Sperm whale 5,8,11 5,8, VU Pseudorca crassidens False killer whale 1,4,5,8,11 1,4,5,8, DD Sousa Indo-Pacific Humpback 1,4,7,8,12 1,4,7,8, NT Page 5-33

113 Name Bay of Bengal (B.o.B.) Distribution Likely Habitat Associations IUCN Species Common name B.o.B. East B.o.B. B.o.B. Secondary ** Oceanic Cont. Slope Cont. Shelf Coastal Estuarine/ Riverine Cat. chinensis/plumbea* dolphin Stenella attenuata Pantropical Spotted dolphin 1,4,12 1,4,12 4,11 4,11 14 LC S. coeruleoalba Striped dolphin 1, 11 1,4, 11 4,11 4,11 LC S. longirostris longirostris Spinner Dolphin 1,11,12 1,4,11,12 4,11 4,11 14 DD Steno bredanensis Rough-toothed dolphin 1,4,8 1,4,8 1,4 1,4 LC Tursiops aduncus Indo-Pacific Bottlenose dolphin 1,4,11,12 1,4,11, DD T. truncatus Bottlenose dolphin 1,4,8 1,4,8 1,4 1,4 LC Ziphius cavirostris Cuviers Beaked whale 1,4 1,4 1,4 4 LC Note: * - Species groups with unresolved taxonomy where both putative sub-species may be present; # Presence records noted as extra-limital; $ Abbreviations based on reference literature: Ul: Possibly present but unlikely; Pr: Probable habitat association based on congeners. Sources: [1] Culik (2004); [2] Ilangakoon (2012); [3] Carwardine (1995); [4] Jefferson et al. (2011); [5] Marine Mammal Conservation Network of India website; [6] Convention of Migratory Species website; [7] Jefferson and Rosenbaum (2014); [8] De Boer (2002); [9] NOAA Fisheries website; [10] Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu (2012); [11] Rudolph and Smeenk (2002); [12] Smith and Tun (2008); [13] Chit et al. (2012); [14] Smith et al. (2008) ** - Secondary distribution refers to the estimated possible range according to the sources indicated. Page 5-34

114 5.3 Conditions Specific to AD Bathymetry, Geology and Sediments Water depths in the deep water AD-5 range between approximately 2,300 m at the eastern boundary to approximately 2,800 m at the western boundary of AD-5 on the Abyssal Plain of the Rakhine Basin (refer to Figure 5-13, ANDA52). Figure 5-13: Seismic Profiles of the WBS along ANDA50 and ANDA52 between 15º45 N and 16º30 N Source: Nielsen et al (2004) Sediments at the base of slope are considered to consist of a mixture of overlapping Bengal Fan deposits and localised sediment fans possibly associated with the canyons observed in the WBS within AD Geology Shallow geology of AD-5 consists of mass transport sediments associated with incised canyons and fan deposits in the middle and base of the WBS to the east that overlap with the thick Tertiary foredeep sediments associated with the Bengal fan, that in turn is deposited over Upper Cretaceous deep marine sediment. Consequently, sea floor sediments within AD-5 are anticipated to consist of deep water fan sediments and turbidite deposits associated with the WBS and Middle Bengal Fan (Figure 5-8). The northern extension of the Nicobar trench may be buried below these sediments resulting in a thick sequence of sediments below the current eastern section of AD-5. Page 5-35

115 Tides Tides in AD-5 are semi-diurnal with tidal range of approximately 3.0m. The closest available tidal data was reported at Pathein which indicated that the maximum tidal heights in the region reach up to 3.1m above Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT) Current Socio-economic Conditions Administrative Structure AD-5 is located to the west of the Ayeyarwady Region, which includes the delta of the Ayeyarwady River. It is one of Myanmar s most populous regions, with 5.1 million people comprising 12% of the national population (Department of Population, 2015). Pathein is the principal city and capital of the Ayeyarwady State and is the principal seat of local government. Administratively, Ayeyarwady Region is divided into six Districts consisting of 26 Townships. The Townships are further divided into 219 Wards (in urban areas) and 1,912 Village-tracts (in rural areas) covering an estimated 11,651 Villages. The Districts, Townships and Village-tracts that are considered relevant to AD-5, and are therefore covered in this IEE are summarised in Table 5-9 and depicted in Figure Table 5-9: Administrative Structure Block Region District Townships Village-tracts Villages AD-5 Ayeyarwady Pathein Pathein & Ngapudaw Settlement Patterns, Landscape and Land-Use The coastal communities located within the Pathein and Ngapudaw Townships are isolated from the densely populated inland areas of the Irrawaddy Delta, by a ridge-line (see Figure 5-15). The ridge line is the southern-most extension of the Arakan mountain range, which forms a series of undulating hills and parallel ridges. The ridge-line is not densely populated with few Villages located in the elevated areas. This is generally attributed to the rough terrain and poor soils. Consequently, much of the ridge-line is comprised of climax or transformed forest, with some formal plantation forestry. The ridge-line forms a distinct physical boundary between the coastal communities and the delta communities, with access to the coast being significantly constrained. There is only one local road. Access to the coastal settlements is also by ocean, so there is significant marine traffic. The ridge line further reduces the range of land-uses available to the coastal communities. Agriculture is confined to low-lying coastal flats along the western coastline. Dependency on agriculture is high for the local coastal communities. The highest concentration of villages therefore occurs in the coastal lowlands. Page 5-36

116 Figure 5-14: Map of Administrative Districts of Ayeyarwady and Adjacent Regions Page 5-37

117 Figure 5-15: Village Distribution Map Page 5-38

118 Population and Household Profile The total estimated population and number of households for the two Townships of interest is summarised in Table The total combined population for the Townships is 623,327 residing in a total of 141,050 households. Table 5-10: Total Estimated Population and Number of Households by Township Township Total Population Total No. of Households Average Household Size Pathein 316,042 71, Ngapudaw 307,285 69, Total 623, , Source: Township General Administrative Department (n.d.); Township General Administrative Department (2014) The average household size is an estimated 4.4 persons, which suggests households are largely comprised of the traditional nuclear family of parents and children. The presence of extended family members within households is low in the two townships. The total estimated population and number of households for the 11 Village -tracts survey during the stakeholder engagement and fishing survey is summarised in Table The total population of the Village-tracts of interest account for approximately 1% of the total population of Pathein Township and 7% of Ngapudaw Township, respectively. The majority of the resident population lives inland of the ridge line, so the coastal population makes up a relatively small proportion of the total. Table 5-11: Total Estimated Population and Number of Households by Village-tracts Township Village-tract Estimated Population Estimated No. of Households Average Household Size Pathein Ywar Thit 3, Ngapudaw Thae Phyu 2, Thit Yaung 3,770 1, Nan Thar Pu and Yae Kyaw 1, Sar Par Gyi 4, Pan Hmaw and Nat Hmaw 1, Kwin Bet 2, Hpaun Doe Zee Chaing 4,400 1, Source: Village-tract/Township Level Fisheries Survey (2015) Page 5-39

119 In the surveyed Village-tracts, there is a total estimated population of 24,355 individuals residing in 6,688 households 1. This result in an average household size of 3.6 persons, which is slightly lower than the average levels for the Pathein District Fishing and Fisheries Commercial Fisheries Fisheries comprise the most important occupation and major contributor to the economy of Myanmar. It has been reported that 90% of Myanmar s gross agriculture production comes from fisheries. Commercial fisheries that use trawl and purse seine as the main fishing gear, account for most of the country s fishery production (DoF 2010). Fisheries Management The Myanmar fishery sector is managed by the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rural Development, and more particularly by the Department of Fisheries (DoF), which has responsibility for both inland and marine fisheries. The main objective of the Department of Fisheries is to develop and implement policies to promote sustainable fishing practices and ensure the preservation and conservation of living marine resources. The Department of Fisheries develops conservation efforts, promotes research and surveys on the current condition of marine resources in partnership with intergovernmental agencies, maintains statistics on fisheries, and supervises the fishery sector through delivery of licenses to national fishing vessels. Fishing Licences The Department of Fisheries enforces fisheries through a licensing system to limit entry into fisheries. Anybody who wishes to carry out fishing activities is required by law to have a fishery license. Fishing without a valid fishing license is an offence under the Marine Fisheries Act. It is normal for restrictions to be attached to a fishing license including for example, how, when and where a fishing activity can be carried out. Myanmar's marine fishing industry consists of three distinct fishing zones namely, onshore, inshore and offshore. From , the Department of Fisheries regulated the onshore area as inshore fisheries of marine fisheries according to the Myanmar Fisheries Law. The inshore area starts from the low tide mark to 10 nautical miles from shore (9 to 19km offshore) in Ayeyarwady Region. Fishing vessels in this category should not be equipped with an engine having more than 12 horsepower and length of the boat is limited to 9.1m. For offshore fishing management, the Department of Fisheries had divided the Myanmar coast line into 140 fishing grounds of 30 x 30 nautical miles block (55km x 55km) by using latitude and longitude lines and designated four fishing areas, namely, Rakhine, Ayeyawady, Mon and Tanintharyi. The offshore zone is described as the area from the 15m water depth out to the limit of the Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ). Boats operating in this fishery would normally have an engine of more than 12 horsepower, and can use bottom trawl, purse seine, surrounding nets, drift nets and long lines (FAO, 2014). The Project operational area is located in the offshore fishery zone. The Project operational area encompasses fishing block B17 and part of blocks B11, B12, B13, B16 and B18. The project area also includes known tuna fishing ground (see details below). Figure 5-16 shows the fishing grounds as established by the Department of Fisheries. 1 This is a generalised figure provided by the Village Tract leaders and should be treated as broad population figures. The accuracy of the figures cannot be determined. Page 5-40

120 Figure 5-16: Fishing Grounds in Myanmar Location of fish landing sites Source: Department of Fisheries (2015) Page 5-41

121 Fisheries Economics For the fiscal year, total production (including aquaculture) for the Ayeyarwady Region was 1,036,200kg. Although specific data is not available for a breakdown of products, this figure will include aquaculture and inland fishing plots (a total of 1,777 in the Ayeyarwady Region, production from the inland plots was 300,000kg) specifically, shrimp/ prawns are likely to account for nearly 50% of the total value of fishery export. Frozen shrimp are exported mainly to Hong Kong and the United States and dried shrimp to the Far East. Offshore Species and Fishing Areas Fisheries resources beyond the immediate coastal areas, in the EEZ are the only fisheries in the region that are not heavily exploited. No recent and reliable assessment exists of these resources and the understanding of the potential that exists is inadequate although Kyaw (2011) identified a number of commercially important species as having a high potential for the development of offshore fisheries. These species are mainly pelagic fishes, including Swordfish (Xiphias gladius), Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), Striped marlin (Tetrapturus audax) and Sailfish (Istiophorus platypterus) inhabit Myanmar s offshore waters. A number of bycatch species caught included Bigeye Thresher (Alopias pelagicus), White-tipped shark (Carcharhinus longimanus), Escolar (Lepidocybium flavobrunneum), Pelagic stingray (Dasyatis spp), Common dolphin (Coryphaena bipinnulata) and Snake mackerel (Gympylus surpens). Targeted shark fishing is illegal in Myanmar and two shark protected areas were established in 2004 by Department of Fisheries (Order no. 2/2004) although these are in the southern waters of Myanmar (Holmes et al 2013). An experimental fishery for Deep Sea Lobster was conducted in 200m in southern Myanmar waters ten years ago, although full scale commercial activities for this species have not been developed (Kyaw, 2011). Swordfish is an oceanic species, but sometimes found in coastal waters; generally above the thermocline, preferring temperatures of C. It is primarily a warm-water species that migrates toward temperate or cold waters for feeding in the summer and back to warm waters in summer for spawning and overwintering. Adults are opportunistic feeders, known to forage for their food from the surface to the bottom over a wide depth range (Nakamura 1985). Swordfish typically forage in deep water during the day and stay in the mixed layer at night (Abascal et al. 2010). Its depth distribution in the north western Pacific ranges from the surface to about 550m: based on records of forage organisms taken by swordfish. However there are depth records down to 2,878m. It feeds mainly on fishes but also on crustaceans and squids. Large individuals may accumulate high concentrations of mercury in the flesh (Collette 2015). The distribution of larval swordfish in the Pacific Ocean indicates that spawning occurs mainly in waters with a temperature of 24 C or more. Spawning appears to occur in all seasons in equatorial waters, but is restricted to spring and summer at higher latitudes (Nishikawa and Ueyanagi 1974). For the Indian Ocean, an ASPIC (A Stock Production Model Incorporating Covariates) model showed a decline in total biomass of 57.8% over the last three generation lengths (20 years) (Figure 5-17, IOTC 2010). The model s results indicate that overfishing is not presently occurring and that the stock is considered to be under adequate management. Yellowfin tuna is a fast-growing, widely distributed and highly productive species. The species is important in commercial fisheries around the world. Yellowfin tuna is an open-water pelagic and oceanic species occurring above and below the thermocline to depths of at least 400m. This species schools primarily by size, either in monospecific or multi-species groups. Larger fish frequently school with porpoises and are also associated with floating debris and other objects. It feeds on fishes, crustaceans and squids. In the Indian Ocean, longevity is at least seven years (Romanov and Korotkova 1988), although very few individuals live past four years. Page 5-42

122 Figure 5-17: Tuna and Sword Fishing Grounds Tuna fishing grounds Source: Department of Fisheries (2015) Page 5-43

123 The Yellowfin tuna stock assessment work in the Indian Ocean is an extremely difficult task because of the conflicting trends in the basic data, total yearly catches and abundance indices used based on the longline catch per unit effort. The catches of Yellowfin tuna show a strong seasonality with high catches during the northern winter months and usually low catches from May June to September October. However, the observed trends in Yellowfin tuna catches and catch per unit effort are not consistent with production-model dynamics, or really with any known theory of fishing (Collette et al, 2011). However, a stock assessment conducted by Nishida (2008) indicated that recent levels of fishing mortality are at an historical high level and the stock has experienced a period of overfishing at least during However, more recently catches in the Indian Ocean have declined substantially (in 2009 and possibly also in 2010) partly due to Somali-based piracy in the region. The main tuna fishing grounds were identified by the Department of Fisheries (see blue circles with blue stripes in Figure 5-17). Part of AD-5 overlaps one of these tuna fishing grounds. Fishing grounds for other species have not been officially identified to date. The Striped marlin is a commercial game fish found in tropical to temperate Indo-Pacific oceans. It is a predator that hunts during the day with a record weight of 190kg, and a maximum length of 420cm (Froese and Pauly, 2013). Giant trevally, which can be found throughout tropical and subtropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Smith-Vaniz, 1999) is classified in the jack family, Carangidae. This large marine fish inhabits both offshore and inshore marine environment and it is normally a silvery colour with occasional dark spots; however males may be black once they mature (Talbot and Willams, 1956). It is a semi-pelagic fish and is the largest fish in the genus Caranx, growing to a maximum known size of 170cm and a weight of 80kg (Froese and Pauly, 2009). Fisheries Biomass Myanmar is a member of several inter-governmental organisations specialised in fisheries management at the regional scale. These organisations include the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre, the Asia-Pacific Fisheries Commission, and the Bay of Bengal LME Programme. In order to develop knowledge on the state of marine resources and fisheries, these organisations have conducted several surveys in Myanmar waters under the leadership of the Food and Agriculture Organisation. The surveys have provided data that allows for some estimates to be developed on the levels of fish biomass although the estimates vary significantly. The Institute of Marine Resources, fish stocks range between 1.3 and 1.8 million metric tonnes per year, this being an upper limit of one million metric tonnes of pelagic fish, and 0.8 million metric tonnes for demersal fish. However, Pitcher (2007) suggests that the maximum sustainable yield of Myanmar s fisheries is ~1.05 million metric tonnes per year (0.5 million metric tonnes of pelagic fish and 0.55 million metric tonnes of demersal fish). There are significant differences in these stock assessments. The Department of Fisheries and academic institutions do not have recent and reliable data on the extent of marine resource stocks, and the current size and composition of marine catches. Fish Catches and Exports Myanmar is an important contributor to the regional fishery sector along with India. In terms of volume, total catches for all sectors (aquaculture, inland and marine capture fisheries) amounted to 4,464,419 metric tonnes in Among these, inland waters fisheries accounted for 1,246,460mt and aquaculture for metric tonnes. The marine capture fisheries represented half of the total production, with 2,332,790 metric tonnes of catch in 2012, an increase of 7.5% from the previous year, and from 121% between 2003 and Furthermore, the general composition of the marine catches landed in the country is also not known precisely. Page 5-44

124 The main landing sites and wholesale fish markets are around Yangon, at Pazuntaung Nyaungdan and Annawa. Other major landing sites are found along the coast. A total of 116 fishery processing factories are registered in Myanmar and most of them export fish to the Chinese market. A recent project from the United Nations Industrial Development Organization will help upgrade eight other factories, increasing their standards to allow exports to these high profitability markets (Eleven Myanmar 2014); however, exports to EU and US markets remain limited at present. Fishing Methods Various types of commercial fishing gear are used to exploit the large diversity of marine species found in Myanmar offshore waters such as trawl net, purse seines and driftnet and gillnet. An overview of the techniques is provided below. Examples of fishing methods used are depicted in Plate 5-5. The trawl fishery contributes approximately half the catch biomass. The trawlers land a large number of fish species. When demersal species were the main catch, the trawl nets caught pelagic finfish. The purse seine is another major type of fishing gear used to exploit the pelagic fish resources. The two main types of purse seine nets employed in Myanmar waters are the fish purse seine, which is used to catch small pelagic species, and the anchovy purse seine, for anchovies. The fish purse seine nets are operated in a traditional manner, without fish aggregating devices. Catching efficiency of this gear has not improved through the years. There are no new fishing techniques to increase fishing pressure on stocks of small pelagic species. Most purse seiners have a skipper with expertise in seeking out fish schools relative to the fish lures, and at night, free-school scouting purse nets using lights. Driftnet and gillnet are also important in fisheries, and used selectively. The finfish drift net and gillnets mainly target higher valued commercial pelagic fish species. The shrimp drift and gillnets are actually trammel gillnets, and are employed to catch the more valuable species of shrimp. Page 5-45

125 Plate 5-5: Examples of Fishing Methods a) Gill Net (source withgod, Shutterstock.com) b) Ocean Purse Seine (source Dn Br, Shutterstock.com) c) Drift Net (source UnderTheSea, Shutterstock.com) Fisheries-based Livelihoods Household Dependence on Fishing Information from the coastal Village-tracts survey indicates that most households are either fully or partially dependent on fishing. Fishing forms part of multiple livelihoods adopted by local communities that include agriculture, casual labour and trade. The level of dependency on fishing varies by village and household, as summarised in Table Based on interviews with Village-tracts leaders, there are estimated to be a total of 6,688 households located in the Village-tracts of interest. 38% (2,548) of households are dependent on fisheries for both income and subsistence (Table 5-12). Inter-village dependency on fisheries is highly variable. The level of dependency and household size per village is presented in Table Of the total 42 villages covered in the fisheries survey, 18 (40%) show a greater than the mean dependency on fisheries. The highest dependency is noted in the Sar Par Gyi, Thae Phyu, and Thit Yaung Village-tracts. However, other villages within the same Village-tracts show very low dependency on fisheries. This is indicates that certain villages prioritise fisheries over agriculture, while neighbouring villages place greater emphasis on agriculture. Page 5-46

126 Table 5-12: Household Dependency on Fisheries Township/ Village-tract Estimated No. of Households Estimated No. of Households Dependent on Fisheries Number Percent Thae Phyu Thit Yaung Ywar Thit Nan Thar Pu & Yae Kyaw Sar Par Gyi Pan Hmaw & Nat Hmaw Kwin Bet Hpaun Doe Zee Chaing Total 6,688 2,548 - Source: Village Tract/Township Level Fisheries Survey (2015) All surveyed Village-tracts undertake artisanal fishing practices. For the purposes of this IEE, artisanal fisheries are defined as small-scale, low-technology fishing practices, where fish catch may be used for subsistence or for commercial sale. Artisanal fishermen use active fishing techniques during the dry season. When weather conditions are good enough to allow fishing far away from the coast, they can venture out to the offshore area. They target grouper, sea bass and mackerel, and their fishing trips can last more than one week. During the rainy season, the offshore area is less accessible because it is more dangerous, limiting the fishing grounds to the inshore fishery zone. Fishermen tend to use more passive fishing gear during the rainy season, such as stow nets, drift nets and gill nets, targeting shrimps, mud crabs or fish such as mullets or Giant Sea Bass. Given that the AD-5 MSS will take place 95km and further from the coastline, they will not be interacting with the coastal zone fishing activities of the artisanal fishermen. Interactions between the Fishery Sector and the Project The Project operational area is located in the offshore fishery zone of the Ayeyarwady Region and it is relatively far from the coast. It is possible that fishing fleets targeting large pelagic fish species such as tuna and swordfish may be encountered by the survey vessels. Nevertheless, fishing operations in the project area and surrounding waters are likely to be limited in scale, for several reasons: i) the low density of licensed vessels in the offshore fishery zone when compared to the inshore fishery zone; ii) the ban on foreign fishing from Myanmar waters since April 2014 for an undetermined period; and iii) the lack of evidence on the practice of illegal fishing in the region (as compared to the Andaman Sea where Thai illegal fishermen often operate and in areas closer to Bangladesh). Interaction with coastal fishermen during the seismic survey is therefore expected to be limited. Page 5-47

127 Secondary Industries Support Industries Support industries to local fisheries are limited to four of the 11 surveyed Village-tracts (see Table 5-13 and Figure 5-18). The majority of these support industries are located in larger and more established villages and are likely to provide regional support to local smaller Village-tracts and Villages. There are three known local commercial producers, located at Kwin Bet, Ywar Thit and Zee Chaing Village-tracts. All commercial producers prepare fish paste to provide to the domestic market. Only the local commercial producer located at Kwin Bet prepares fish paste for the export market. These larger Village-tracts also support a range of support services to local fishers including boat building and maintenance, sale of fuel and supplies and sale of fishing equipment. These are considered to be small-scale support industries dependant on fishers from local coastal communities. Of the 11 surveyed Village-tracts, only one (Ywar Thit) states that the villagers/ families provide any form of support services to the local fisheries. This includes fish processing, fish-net repair or sale, and transportation of fish catch. Table 5-13: Types of Secondary Industries Village-tract Secondary Industry Type Kwin Bet Ywar Thit Local commercial producer Boat building and maintenance Sale of fuel and supplies Sale of fishing equipment Repair and maintenance of equipment Rental of boats and equipment Local commercial producer Zee Chaing Sale of fishing equipment Local commercial producer Source: Village Tract/Township Level Fisheries Survey, 2015 Page 5-48

128 Figure 5-18: Secondary Support Industries Map Page 5-49

129 Ethnic Groups Of the 11 surveyed Village-tracts, the majority of the population identify themselves as Myanmar (Bamar). This is the major and largest cultural/ethnic group in Myanmar, although it should not be considered a single homogenous group (International Organization for Migration, 2005). Only three of the 11 Village-tracts have a lower representation of the Bamar namely Thae Phyu, Ywar Thit and Zee Chaing (see Table 5-14). The remaining eight villages comprise an average of nearly 90% of Bamar people, while the remaining 10% is comprised of Kayin and Rakhine Cultural Groups. Table 5-14: Major Cultural Groups by Village-tract Village-tract Percent of Population by Cultural Groups Myanmar (Bamar) Kayin (Karen) Rakhine Other Thae Phyu Thit Yaung Ywar Thit Nan Thar Pu and Yae Kyaw Sar Par Gyi Nat Hmaw and Pan Hmaw Kwin Bet Hpaun Doe Zee Chaing Source: Village Tract/Township Level Fisheries Survey, 2015 Analysis of Township data for Pathein and Ngapudaw (Pathein Township General Administrative Department, n.d.; Ngapudaw Township General Administrative Department, 2014) supports that the Bamar are the majority with 80% and 63% of the total population for the two Townships, respectively. The Kayin constitute the third largest culture by population in Burma (Oxford Burma Alliance, n.d.) and is generally considered an umbrella term for a heterogeneous groups that have differing language, culture, religion or material characteristics. The Kayin are a relatively small proportion of the total population in the surveyed Village-tracts, accounting for only an average of 6% in five Village-tracts. There is no or negligible presence of the Kayin in the remaining six Village-tracts (see Table 5-14). The third and final cultural group is the Rakhine people, which form the majority in the Ywar Thit Village-tract (85% of the village population), a significant portion of Zee Chaing (50% of the village population) and a smaller proportion in nine other Village-tracts (see Table 5-14). The Rakhine people are the largest ethnic group in Rakhine State, and are estimated to comprise 5% of the total population of Myanmar (Oxford Burma Alliance, n.d.). Page 5-50

130 The Township data for Thar Paung and Ngapudaw (Pathein Township General Administrative Department, n.d.; Ngapudaw Township General Administrative Department, 2014) confirm the presence of a range of other ethnic groups, other than the above, including Kachin, Chin, Mon, Shan and well as non-defined others Culture and Cultural Practices In the 11 surveyed Village-tracts, cultural practices were largely centred on the home. However, there is also a strong cultural connection with coastal fishing grounds, where fishers pray on their boats for good fish catches. There are also strong cultural connections to local islands. The Nan Thar Pu Village Tract has cultural links to the Gaw Rin Gyi Island, where supernatural events have happened in the past. The island is also considered to be an important religious and spiritual area. The Thae Phyu Village Tract also stated that local islands have religious and spiritual significance. In general, islands and rocky outcrops are considered to be of cultural importance (see Figure 5-19) Tourism and Recreation Myanmar, strategically located in South-east Asia, is currently experiencing rapid growth in international tourist arrivals and tourism receipts. Visitor numbers surpassed the one million mark in 2012 and three million arrivals during The total number of foreign tourists visiting between 2013 and 2020 is projected to be at least 20.4 million and 29.2 million domestic tourists. The tourist attractions along the west coast of Ayeyarwady Region are Ngwe Saung and Chaung Tha beaches. According to the data from the Ministry of Hotels and Tourism, about 34,000 people visited Ngwe Saung and 70,000 visited Chaung Tha during January to March According to the Ministry of Hotels and Tourism of the Ayeyarwaddy Region, a total of 70,748 domestic and foreign tourists travelled to Ngwe Saung and 247,237 to Chaung Tha in Ngwe Saung Beach is a newly-opened beach about 48km from Pathein. Chaung Tha Beach is located 40km to the west of Pathein in Ayeyarwady Region Port Infrastructure and Marine Traffic Port Infrastructure Myanmar currently has nine ports along the western and southeastern coast of the country, namely: Yangon, Sittwe, Kyaukphyu, Thandwe, Pathein, Mawlamyine, Dawei, Myeik, and Kawthaung as shown in Figure These ports are managed by the Myanmar Port Authority and, with exception of the country s principal port in Yangon, the rest of the ports are small coastal ports with very limited infrastructure and without capacity to accommodate a large number of vessels. Deep water ports are currently being jointly developed at the southern city of Dawei (in association with Thailand) and Kyaukphyu in the north (in association with China). Other recent activities in the ports sector include interests in developing ports in Thilawa and Sittwe. The Government has also identified sites in Kalegauk and Bokpyin for the development of ports. Page 5-51

131 Figure 5-19: Locations of Culturally Sensitive Sites (Islands and Outcrops) Page 5-52

132 Figure 5-20: International Ports in Myanmar Page 5-53

133 5.3.4 Marine Traffic As shown in Figure 5-21, marine traffic off the coast of Ayeyarwady State is limited to regional traffic. A moderately busy shipping lane, shown by the red lane on the map, connects Chittagong port in Bangladesh to the Malacca Straits in Malaysia. AD-5 is located in close proximity to this shipping lane and encounters with vessels during the 2D and 3D MSS can, therefore, be expected. The eastern edge of the block is also utilised by coastal trading vessels from Yangon and Kyaukpyhu. Figure 5-21: Marine Traffic in the Bay of Bengal Source: Page 5-54

134 6 POTENTIAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION 6.1 Environmental and Social Risk Assessment Methodology Woodside recognises that risk is inherent to its business and effective risk management is vital to delivering on its objectives, its success, its continued growth and strong environmental and social performance. Woodside is committed to managing all risk in a proactive and effective manner. The environmental and social risk management methodology used in this IEE is based on Woodside s Risk Management Operating Standard. These standards are consistent with the AS/ISO Risk Management Principles. The risk management methodology provides a framework to demonstrate: that the identified risks and impacts are reduced to as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP); and the acceptability of risks and impacts. The key steps of Woodside s Risk Management Framework are shown in Figure 6-1. A description of each step and how it is applied to the scopes of this activity is provided in Sections to below. Figure 6-1: Key Steps in Woodside s Risk Management Framework Page 6-1

135 6.1.1 Establish Context The objective of a risk assessment is to identify risks and associated impacts of an activity, so that they can be assessed and appropriate control measures applied to eliminate, control or mitigate the risk to ALARP and to determine if the risk level is acceptable. An environmental risk assessment (Environmental Hazard Identification [ENVID] workshop) for the activity, based on the project description provided in Chapter 4 of this IEE, was undertaken in accordance with Woodside s Hazard Identification Procedure. The ENVID was undertaken by multidisciplinary teams consisting of relevant operational and environmental personnel with sufficient breadth of knowledge, training and experience to reasonably assure that risks were identified and their potential environmental impacts assessed. The output of the ENVID is summarised in Table Risk Identification The purpose of an ENVID is to understand the level of risk exposure a given activity presents to the environment. The ENVID is used to identify risk events with the potential to harm the environment. Risks were identified during the ENVID for both planned (routine and non-routine) and unplanned (accidents/incidents/emergency conditions) activities. Potential environmental and social impacts are then determined based on the stressor type. During this process risks that are identified as Not Applicable (not credible) are scoped out of the assessment. This is undertaken through defining of the activity and the identification that an aspect is not applicable, e.g. impacts to benthic habitat from the physical presence of a moored vessel is not applicable if anchoring the vessel is not required. The purpose of an ENVID is to understand the level of risk exposure a given activity presents to the environment. The ENVID is used to identify risk events with the potential to harm the environment and/or social and cultural sensitivities and values Developing Mitigation Measures The assessment process is intended to identify impacts and benefits associated with project activities and ways of dealing with them during the planning and design stage of the project. The ultimate goal of the assessment process is to reduce the adverse impacts and enhance the benefits or positive impact of any intended activity. Planned mitigation measures will be described, and additional measures or controls will be recommended where impacts are still considered to be unacceptable. These mitigation measures have been utilised to develop the Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) (refer Chapter 8). Many mitigation or control measures will require a degree of management to ensure their success in reducing potential impacts to the residual level that is expected through the IEE process. Most of these residual outcomes are likely to require a degree of monitoring through project implementation to ensure that the mitigation management process is effective. It is these management and monitoring efforts that report to the ESMP as part of the IEE process Cumulative Impacts Potential cumulative impacts are described in Section Page 6-2

136 6.1.5 Risk Analysis Risk analysis further develops the understanding of a risk by defining the impacts and assessing appropriate controls. Risk analysis considered previous risk assessments for similar activities, review of relevant studies, review of past performance, external stakeholder consultation feedback and review of the existing environment. The following key steps were undertaken for each identified risk during the risk assessment and are described in the following sections: identification of decision type in accordance with the decision support framework; identification of appropriate control measures (preventative and mitigation) aligned with the decision type; calculation of the residual risk rating. The residual risk rating process is undertaken to assign a level of risk to each impact measured in terms of consequence and likelihood. The assigned risk level is the residual risk (i.e. risk with controls in place) and is therefore determined following the identification of the decision type and appropriate control measures. The risk rating process considers the environmental impacts and where applicable, the reputational and brand, legal/compliance and social and cultural impacts of the risk. The risks ratings are assigned using Woodside s Operational Risk Rating Tables (refer to Table 6-1 and Table 6-2). The residual risk rating process is performed using the following steps: (a) Select the Consequence Level: Determine the worst case credible outcome associated with the selected event assuming some controls (prevention and mitigation) have failed. Where more than one impact applies (e.g. environmental and legal/compliance), the consequence level for the highest severity impact is selected. Table 6-1 below shows the Woodside expanded definitions for environmental consequences that is used in the ENVID process. (b) Select the Likelihood Level: Determine the description that best fits the chance of the selected consequence actually occurring, assuming reasonable effectiveness of the prevention and mitigation controls. (c) Calculation of the Residual Risk Rating: The residual risk rating is then calculated by multiplying the selected consequence and likelihood levels: Residual Risk Level = Highest Selected Consequence Level x Selected Likelihood Level The residual risk rating process is performed using the following steps (refer to Table 6-1 and Table 6-2 for further information): Where residual risk is low: Good industry practice or comparable standards have been applied to control the risk, because any further effort towards risk reduction is not reasonably practicable without sacrifices grossly disproportionate to the benefit gained. Page 6-3

137 Where the residual risk is medium or high: Good industry practice is applied for the situation/risk and alternatives have been identified and control measures selected reduce the risks and impacts. This may require assessment of Woodside and industry benchmarking, review of local and international codes and standards, consultation with stakeholders et cetera. The output of the ENVID workshops for this Project is contained in Table 6-3. The table sets out the (1) source activity; (2) nature of effect; (3) potential impacts; (4) potential receptors; (5) mitigation strategies; and (6) results of consequence and likelihood assessment and resultant residual (post mitigation) risk rating. The key to the last three columns is as follows: Consequence Levels range from A (Major) to F (Minor). Operational Likelihood Levels range from 0 (Remote) to 5 (Highly Likely). Residual Risk Rating is assessed to be one of: o o o o Severe (red); High (orange); Medium (yellow); and Low (green). Page 6-4

138 Table 6-1: Woodside s Operational Likelihood Table Likelihood Description Frequency Continuous operation Once every 10, ,000 years at location Once every 1,000 10,000 years at location Once every 100 1,000 years at location Once every years at location Once every 1 10 years at location More than once a year at location or continuously Probability Single activity 1 in 100,000 1,000,000 1 in 10, ,000 1 in 1,000 10,000 1 in 100 1,000 1 in >1 in 10 Experience Remote: Highly Unlikely: Unlikely: Possible: Likely: Highly Likely: History of occurrence in Company or Industry Unheard of in the industry Has occurred once or twice in the industry Has occurred many times in the industry, but not in Woodside Has occurred once or twice in Woodside Has occurred frequently in Woodside Has occurred frequently at the location Likelihood Level Table 6-2: Woodside s Residual Risk Level Matrix Likelihood Level Operational Risk Levels Residual Risk Level A Severe Consequence Level B C D E F High Medium Low Page 6-5

139 Table 6-3: ENVID Matrix for Seismic Survey and Seabed Sampling in AD-5 Residual Risk Rating Aspect Source of Risk Key Potential Environmental and Social Impacts Key Mitigation Measures Consequence Likelihood Residual Risk Planned (Routine) Activities Physical presence of project vessels Proximity of project vessels causing interference with or displacement of other vessels (commercial shipping.). Short-term, isolated interference with/exclusion of commercial fishing, commercial shipping. Timely advice to local fishermen concerning the survey activities Fisheries Liaison Officer to participate in the survey and interact with local fishermen when necessary (Myanmar speaker); Maintenance of a Safety Zone around project vessel and all towed equipment; Issuance of Notice to Mariners; Maximizing efficiency of seismic surveys to reduce operation times, where possible; Notifications to all known relevant fishery stakeholders including the Department of Fisheries and the various fishing associations, F 1 Low Adherence to COLREGS regulations; Standard maritime safety procedures will be followed including the appropriate navigational lighting and maintenance of radio contact with nearby vessels Chase vessel(s) will be employed (MSS only)) Community Grievance mechanism Routine noise emissions Generation of noise from seismic survey equipment and project vessels during normal operations. Temporary and minor behavioural and physiological disturbance (e.g. avoidance or attraction) to marine fauna. Appropriate maintenance of vessels and associated equipment. Maximizing efficiency of seismic surveys to reduce operation times, where possible; Pre-start search (60mins deep water) (MSS only) Marine Mammal Observer present (MSS only) All sightings recorded (MSS only) F 2 Low E 1 Low Soft start (20mins) (MSS only) Prestart delay zones (500m of source) (MSS only) Routine atmospheric emissions Internal combustion engines on project vessel(s) and machinery engines. Reduced local air quality from atmospheric emissions. Minor contribution to greenhouse gas emissions Comply with MARPOL73/78 Annex VI requirements: Adequate maintenance of mechanical/motor systems (vessel operator to maintain maintenance and inspection log) Vessel to hold an International Air Pollution Prevention (IAPP) Certificate as appropriate to class F 1 Low Use of low sulphur fuel (sulphur content not to exceed 3.5% m/m) when it is available Practice segregation of waste - only appropriate non-hazardous wastes to be disposed in incinerator (wastes which cannot be safely incinerated are to be disposed of at shore base) Routine discharges Discharge of bilge water, grey water, sewage and putrescible wastes from the project vessel(s) to the marine environment. Localised and temporary reduction in water quality due to nutrient enrichment. Localised and temporary adverse effect to marine biota in offshore waters. Comply with MARPOL requirements for waste management, e.g. sewage treatment unit, oil/water separator, macerator for biodegradable waste Vessel to obtain International Sewage Pollution Prevention (ISPP) certificate and International Oil Pollution Prevention (IOPP) certificate, as appropriate to vessel class The vessel will have a waste management plan providing procedure for minimizing, collecting, storing, processing and disposing of garbage waste F 0 Low Maintain waste log including waste type, quantity and disposal method Page 6-6

140 Residual Risk Rating Aspect Source of Risk Key Potential Environmental and Social Impacts Key Mitigation Measures Consequence Likelihood Residual Risk Routine light generation Lighting from project vessel (s) Temporary and minor behavioural effect to fauna attracted to light (seabirds, turtles). Lighting will be minimised to sources required for navigational and operational safety reasons. On-board operational lighting will be located and oriented in such a way to direct working light where it is needed, and minimise light spill to the marine environment. F 1 Low Disturbance to seabed as a result of seabed sampling Seabed sampling Localised impact to benthic substrate Potential impact to any subsea cables Confirm locations of subsea infrastructure prior to any seabed sampling F 1 Low Unplanned Activities (Accidents/ Incidents) Unplanned discharges to the marine environment Hydrocarbon release to the marine environment during refuelling. Accidental discharge of other hydrocarbons/chemicals from project vessel deck activities and equipment (e.g. cranes and winches). Localised and minor temporary disruption to fauna such as oiling of marine mammals, reptiles and seabirds. Localised and temporary contamination of water which may lead to toxic effects on marine biota in offshore waters. Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP) All handling, storage and packaging of hazardous substances in accordance with MARPOL (Annex III) Bunding of storage areas Register of hazardous materials Drip trays under engines, gearboxes etc. F 2 Low Onboard spill containment kits MSDS available on board Accidental loss of solid hazardous or nonhazardous wastes to the marine environment. Pollution and contamination of the environment and secondary impacts on marine fauna (e.g. ingestion or entanglement). No overboard disposal of non-biodegradable wastes (incinerated or kept for onshore disposal) Incinerator ash to be disposed of at shore base only (not to be released to sea) F 1 Low Unplanned events associated with physical presence of project vessels Accidental collision between project vessels and migratory marine fauna. Potential injury or fatality of an individual or a number of marine fauna with no threat to overall population viability. Where possible, reduction in vessel speed if mammals sighted within 500m Marine Mammal Observer on board survey vessel (MSS only) Soft start (MSS only) Where possible, survey vessels will not approach closer than 100m for a cetacean (unless animals bow riding) E 1 Low Training of personnel Physical loss of seismic streamers, acoustic source, seabed sampling equipment. Localised short-term damage of benthic subsea habitats in the immediate location of the dropped seismic streamers and/or acoustic source. Issuance of Notice to Mariners Use of chase boats to liaise with other vessels (MSS only) Adequate maintenance of streamers, cables and depth control devices (MSS only) Adequate maintenance of navigation equipment (MSS only) Adequate depth of streamers and streamer control (MSS only) F 1 Low Propulsion redundancy (MSS only) Streamer recovery devices (SRDs) to be used for recovery (MSS only) Streamer and seabed sampling equipment will be recovered where practicable Page 6-7

141 6.2 Physical Presence of Project Vessels and Towed Equipment Potential Impacts There will be a physical presence of survey vessels (seismic, support and chase vessels) in the Project operational area during the 2D and 3D MSS. Given the presence of these vessels and towed equipment, commercial fishing and shipping vessels will be required to temporarily avoid operations in front of the seismic vessel or immediately behind the seismic and support vessel (i.e. the length of the streamers if deployed) as the seismic vessel acquires data along pre-planned survey lines. Thus, the operational overlap with commercial fishing and shipping activity may temporarily exclude vessels from the area resulting in a potential loss of catch, potential for loss of gear, or variations to shipping movements. At the closest point, the proposed 3D and 2D MSS is approximately 95km from the nearest coastline, and they both require a further buffer for turning. 2D survey acquisition lines are likely to continue in to the adjacent A-7, which has been discussed in a separate IEE for that activity. The surveys comprise of a series of parallel sail-lines (acquisition lines) for acquiring data, with approximately 550m and 4km separation for the 3D and 2D MSS, respectively. The seismic vessels will travel at a nominal speed of approximately 4.5 knots (approximately 8.1km/h). Given the entire vessel and streamer length is approximately up to 8km for 3D or 12 km for 2D, the vessel, or part of the towed equipment is in any particular location for approximately one and a half hours (3D) or two hours (2D). That is, if another vessel were to be stationary in position, then it would take approximately one and a half hours for the seismic vessel and equipment to pass. At the end of each survey line the survey vessel will complete a turn with a radius of approximately 8km (4.4NM). Additionally, as the survey acquisition lines are relatively long (typically 63km on average) and separated (typically 550m or 4km, for the 3D and 2D MSS respectively) and that vessels will follow a racecourse pattern as described in Chapter 4, once the vessel has passed a specific area, it will take a significant amount of time before the vessel passes nearby on a subsequent run Artisanal Fishing Fishers from the Village-tracts interviewed by Woodside target a variety of fish species. Most Villagetracts target one commercially important fish when fishing, however many also catch a variety of species/sea products throughout the year. From interviews with Village-tract leaders at 11 villages along the A-7 coastline (adjacent to the east of AD-5), it was identified that most artisanal fishing occurs within 5 10km of the main coastal villages, although the communities did identify fishing grounds as far as 20km from the coastline. As the AD-5 MSS surveys will take place 95km from the shore, they are unlikely to interact with any artisanal fishers Commercial Fishing Interaction The AD-5 survey activities have the potential to interact with industrial/commercial fishing activities. It is known that there are 465 offshore fishing licenses issued by the government of Myanmar in the Ayeyarwady Region, but there is little information on how many of those are active, and when and where they operate. During the proposed survey activities in AD-5 there will be a safety zone (500m) around the survey vessel and all towed equipment. This safety zone has the potential to restrict the areas that fishing vessels can operate, or set equipment such as trawl nets or long lines. It is therefore reasonable to conclude that the impact of the proposed 3D and 2D survey activity will be due to operators temporarily relocating their activities from some areas during the surveys. There is no reason to believe that this will result in any appreciable changes in productivity. Page 6-8

142 Given the extensive mitigation measures in place (refer Section ) the potential for temporary exclusion of industrial/commercial fishers from fishing areas is considered a low risk Commercial Shipping The presence of the project vessels and towed equipment has the potential to cause temporary disruption to commercial shipping. The major shipping lane from the Straits of Malacca in the south, to the ports of Chittagong, Kolkata and Paradip in the north, Traverses the eastern side of AD-5 (Figure 5-21). Traffic density mapping suggests that approximately 20 international vessels per 24 hours will pass through AD-5, and there is likely to be some national shipping from the port of Yangon to the northern ports of Myanmar. Traffic from coastal villages for commuting and transport of goods is expected to be limited to the nearshore area based on capability of vessels, and therefore will be well clear of the survey area. Given the extensive mitigation measures in place (refer Section ), including the residual potential for temporary disruption of industrial/ commercial shipping vessel is considered low Mitigation Measures for Physical Presence Impacts To ensure the potential risks to commercial/industrial fishing and shipping, associated with the physical presence of survey vessels and towed equipment are minimized, the following mitigation measures will be implemented: Timely advice to local fishermen concerning the survey activities and their location, this will take the form of public meetings, flyers to fishermen and notices; Fisheries Liaison Officer to participate in the survey and interact with local fishermen when necessary (Burmese Speaker); Maintenance of a Safety Zone around project vessel and all towed equipment; Notice to Mariners posted at major ports; Maximizing efficiency of seismic surveys to reduce operation times, where possible; Notifications to all known relevant fishery stakeholders including the Department of Fisheries and the various fishing associations, to inform them of the location and timing of the surveys notices to be prepared in Myanmar Language and distributed to the relevant stakeholders delivered at meetings wherever possible; Adherence to COLREGS regulations; Standard maritime safety procedures will be followed including the appropriate navigational lighting and maintenance of radio contact with nearby vessels, although will not be automatically assumed that every vessel is equipped with a radio; Chase vessel(s) will be employed with marine seismic survey to manage interaction with fishing vessels, fishermen will be advised of the presence of the survey vessel and extent of the streamer array (MSS only); Wherever possible any equipment lost to sea during the survey will be recovered, and records documented. Any significant interaction with fishing vessels will be recorded and reported to the relevant authorities including DOF, MOECAF and MOGE; Woodside will establish a Communications Protocol, consistent with the requirements established in the Social Management Plan; and Page 6-9

143 Woodside s Community Grievance Mechanism will make provision for reporting of perceived economic impact. All claims will be investigated appropriately by Woodside Residual Risk It is expected that after application of the mitigation measures, the residual impact on commercial/industrial fisheries and shipping traffic as a result of the physical presence of the survey vessels and towed equipment will be low. 6.3 Potential Impact of Routine Noise Emissions from a Seismic Survey The operation of the marine seismic survey, either 2D or 3D, requires the generation of high-intensity sound, generated in this case from an airgun array as described in the Project Description (Chapter 4). The propagation of that sound through the ocean, and its measurement, makes seismic survey possible. In this section, a brief introduction to the characteristics of sound and its propagation in the sea will be provided as well as a summary of the potential impacts of sound upon various marine species. This will then be applied to the expected potential impacts of the 2D and 3D MSS in AD-5. A detailed analysis of the potential impacts on marine species has been developed and is presented in Appendix C. A summary of that analysis is presented here The Characteristics of Sound Propagation in the Sea Sound is a physical phenomenon arising from minute vibrations which travel through a medium such as air or water. The vibrations occur at a molecular level, where molecules are compressed and then return to their original position by a sequence of pressure waves (Figure 6-2) which move at a speed which is determined by the density of the medium. The speed of sound in water is much greater than the speed of sound in air. These pressure waves will move in all directions, hence if unimpeded in any medium they will propagate spherically from the source. As they do so the energy will be dissipated over the surface of the sphere. Sound at any given location is generally defined in terms of its frequency (sometimes called pitch), its intensity (loudness) and its duration. For more details, there are several publications and books that provide detailed overviews of underwater acoustics, such as Richardson et al. (1995) and Au and Hastings (2008), and a more detailed analysis is provided in Appendix C. Frequency refers to how many times the peak of a sound wave will pass a given point. Typically human hearing is in the range of approximately 20Hz to 20,000Hz. Most marine mammals use sound for a variety of purposes, principally communication and navigation. The range in which they can hear and produce sound will vary from species to species. Other marine species are known to react to sound in a variety of ways that affect their migratory and breeding patterns in some cases. Again, the frequency of sound dependency or reaction will vary from species to species and purpose to purpose. Acoustic intensity is defined as the acoustic power per unit area. It is proportional to the average pressure generated by the sound waves. The range of pressure changes which most receptors (humans and animals) can detect is substantial. It is measured in the SI unit of pressure, the Pascal (Pa) and spans orders of magnitude. For this reason a logarithmic scale has been developed using the unit of decibels (db), which compares the intensity of a sound to a standard reference pressure (P ref ). The standard reference pressure that is used for measurements in air is 20µPa, and for water 1µPa. Given the logarithmic nature of sound measured in db, care must be taken in comparing sound levels, and calculating their accumulation. The intensity or loudness of sound is commonly expressed in terms of Sound Pressure Level (SPL) which gives a measure of the instantaneous intensity of a sound wave; and Sound Exposure Level (SEL) which allows for fluctuations in sound intensity over a period of time. The SPL is dependent Page 6-10

144 upon characteristics of the sound wave the average intensity of which is described by a mathematical function called the root mean square (rms) and so is expressed in the units of rms SPL (db re 1µPA). The SEL represents an integration of the loudness over time and is expressed as SEL (db re 1µPA.s). Please refer to Appendix C for a more complete description of the mathematical derivation of these terms and units. From the moment a sound wave is generated, it will reduce in intensity due to its propagation. It is for this reason that usually when sound intensity is reported it is important to know both the medium in which the sound was generated (in this case seawater), and the distance from the source. It is quite common to report the noise at source as 1m from the instigation of the sound wave with the unit (db re 1µPa m). For the propagation of sound in sea water the sound levels at any given sensitive receptor can be calculated through a very complex interrelationship between the distance from the source, the depth, the intensity, duration and characteristics of the source noise, the depth of the water and the composition of the seabed. Estimates of the received levels at varying distance from the source have been calculated and are presented in Appendix C. The calculations are based on an approximation of the 4,000cui airgun arrays that will be used in the marine seismic surveys for AD-5, and take both the deep and shallow water characteristics into account. Figure 6-2: Characteristics of Sound Waves General Potential Impacts of Seismic Sound on Marine Biota Responses of marine animals exposed to underwater anthropogenic sounds depend on many variables. Important features include the spatial relationships between a sound source and the animal, the hearing sensitivity of the animal, the received sound exposure, the duration of exposure, the duty cycle of the sound, the ambient sound level, and the animal s activity at time of exposure. This impact assessment will focus on seismic sound, as it will be the main sound source of concern for the seismic survey, however other sounds in the marine environment will be discussed where relevant to provide context. Possible effects of seismic sounds on marine animals can roughly be categorised as follows (based on Richardson et al and Southall et al. 2007) for marine mammals, and Popper et al. (2014) for fish and turtles): Trauma and death; Effects on hearing (including temporary and permanent hearing loss); Page 6-11

145 Non-auditory health effects; Auditory signal masking; Behavioural disturbance; Reduced availability of prey; Population-level effects on fitness and survival. Specifically, this section assesses the likelihood of effects on marine mammals, fish (including Whale sharks), turtles, crustaceans, molluscs, plankton and eggs/ larvae based on the expected exposure levels Marine Mammals The sounds that marine mammals hear and generate vary in characteristics such as the dominant frequency, bandwidth, energy, temporal pattern, and directivity. These features must be considered for each type of potential effect. Several of the above-mentioned potential effects are reviewed in detail in Appendix C, and are summarised below. There is also a summary of the circumstances where they might occur for marine mammals exposed to sounds from the proposed survey activities. (a) Acoustic Masking Acoustic masking is the reduction in an animal s ability to perceive biologically relevant sounds because of interfering sounds. The amplitude, timing, and frequency content of the interfering sounds determine the amount of masking an animal experiences. Masking can decrease the range over which an animal may communicate with its peers, detect predators, or find food. The study of acoustic masking in the ocean has traditionally focused on mysticetes (a suborder also known as Baleen whales includes Right whales; Rorquals; Blue whales; and Humpbacks) and shipping sounds. Mysticetes communicate using low-frequency calls that lie in the same frequency band as shipping sounds (Payne and Webb 1971). Over the past 50 years commercial shipping, the largest contributor of masking noise (McDonald et al. 2008), has increased the ambient sound levels in the deep ocean at low frequencies by 10 15dB (Hatch and Wright 2007). Hatch et al. (2012) estimate that calling North Atlantic Right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) may have lost, on average, 63 67% of their communication space due to shipping noise. Researchers are also concerned with other groups of cetaceans and acoustic masking by other sound sources. Sound from seismic surveys contribute to ocean-wide acoustic masking (Hildebrand 2009), and fish create low-frequency sounds ( Hz, most often Hz) that can be a significant component of local ambient sound levels (Zelick et al. 1999). There is increasing evidence that ship sounds can reach higher frequencies (e.g. up to 30kHz, Arveson and Vendittis 2000; and up to 44.8kHz, Aguilar Soto et al. 2006) at distances of at least 700m (Aguilar Soto et al. 2006). Aguilar Soto et al. (2006) recorded a passing vessel on a Digital Acoustic Recording Tag (DTAG) attached to a Cuvier s Beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris). This recording demonstrated that vessel sounds masked the whale s ultrasonic vocalisations and reduced by 82% the maximum communication range when exposed to a 15dB increase in ambient sound levels at the vocalisation frequencies. The study also determined that the effective detection distance of Cuvier s Beaked whales echolocation clicks would also be reduced by 58%. However, it is important to note that these calculations are based on observed noise increases at high frequencies from a single passing vessel, that noise profiles from ships are highly variable, and that high-frequency components attenuate more rapidly than low frequencies (Hatch and Wright 2007), limiting the area over which Cuvier s Beaked whales would be affected. Page 6-12

146 Wyatt (2008) prepared a compilation of known sound sensitives for a range of marine mammals which is presented as an example in Table 6-4. Table 6-4: Known Sound Sensitivities of Selected Marine Mammals Marine Mammals Maximum Source Level (db re 1µPa m) Frequency Range (Hz) Sound Sensitivities Source Bottlenose dolphin to 140,000 Echolocation clicks Harland and Richards (2006) Fin whale to 1000 Vocalisations; pulses, moans Humpback whale to 1000 Fluke and flipper slaps Heathershaw et al. (2001) Heathershaw et al. (2001) Bowhead whale to 1000 Vocalisations; songs Heathershaw et al. (2001) Blue whale to 1000 Vocalisations; low frequency moans Right whale to 1000 Vocalisations; impulsive signal Gray whale to 1000 Vocalisations; moans Heathershaw et al. (2001) Heathershaw et al. (2001) Heathershaw et al. (2001) Harbour porpoise to 140,000 Echolocation clicks Harland and Richards (2006) Open ocean ambient noise Source: Wyatt (2008) 74 to to 1000 Estimate for offshore central California sea state 3-5 Heathershaw et al. (2001) (b) Behavioural Disturbance Behavioural responses to underwater sound vary greatly, and there are many examples of individuals of the same species exposed to the same sound reacting differently (Nowacek et al. 2004). An individual s response to a stimulus is influenced by the context in which the stimulus is received and how the individual perceives its relevance. A number of biological and environmental factors can affect the response including age, sex, behavioural state at the time of exposure (e.g. resting, foraging, or socialising), perceived proximity and motion of the sound, and nature of the sound source. Temporary avoidance is one expected response to anthropogenic sounds, but animals may also display other behaviours. Some animals may respond to anthropogenic sounds by increasing vigilance (defined as scanning for the source of the stimulus); hiding or retreating or both, that may correspondingly result in decreased foraging time (Purser and Radford 2011). Marine mammals have also been observed to reduce vocalisations in response to anthropogenic sounds, sometimes ceasing to call for weeks or months (IWC 2007). Some cetaceans may compensate for masking, to a limited degree, either by increasing the amplitude of their calls (Lombard effect) or by changing spectral (frequency content) and temporal properties of vocalisations (Hotchkin and Parks 2013). North Atlantic Right whales produced calls with a higher average fundamental frequency and lowered their call rate in high noise conditions (Parks et al. 2007), whereas Blue whales increased their discrete, audible calls during a seismic survey (Di Iorio and Clark 2010) or when ship sounds were nearby (Melcon et al. 2012). Whales seem most reactive when the sound level is increasing, which may be perceived as the source approaching. A startle effect may occur at the onset of a sound. Although Page 6-13

147 limited data are available, stationary industrial activities producing continuous sounds (such as dredging, drilling, and oil-production-related activities) appear to produce reduced reactions by cetaceans than do moving sound sources, particularly ships (Richardson et al. 1995). Some cetaceans may partially habituate to continuous sounds (Richardson et al. 1995). For pulsed sounds specifically, there is evidence that the behavioural state of Baleen whales (McCauley et al. 1998; Gordon et al. 2003) combined with their proximity to airgun sounds,, affects how the whales react to these sounds. Several species of Baleen whales showed avoidance behaviour to sounds from seismic surveys (Richardson et al. 1995), including Bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus), avoiding distant seismic airguns at received levels of rms SPL of dB re 1µPa during fall migration (Richardson et al. 1999). The Richardson et al. (1999) behavioural levels should viewed as conservative for non-migrating whales, as feeding whales are typically less likely to avoid sounds, whereas migrating whales are more likely to exhibit a temporary migration deflection to avoid sounds. Feeding Bowhead whales in the summer were more tolerant of airgun sounds avoiding airguns only when received levels reached dB re 1µPa (Richardson et al. 1995). Resting female Humpback whales diverted to remain 7 12km away although males were occasionally attracted to seismic survey sounds (McCauley et al. 2000). During the first 72 hours of a 10 day seismic survey, Fin whales appeared to move away from the airgun array, and the displacement persisted well beyond the 10 day duration of seismic airgun activity (Castellote et al. 2012). It was unknown, however, if the whales were avoiding the sound or following another cue such as a prey. Brandt et al. (2011) and Dähne et al. (2013) reported that Harbour porpoises were displaced from a noise source (pile driving, another repeated impulsive sound). In response to airgun sounds, small odontocetes showed the strongest lateral spatial avoidance, mysticetes and Killer whales showed more localised spatial avoidance, Long-finned Pilot whales (Globicephala melas) only showed a change in orientation, and Sperm whales did not show any significant avoidance response (Stone and Tasker 2006). A recent report from BOEM (Barkaszi et al. 2012) indicated that defined species groups (all cetaceans, Baleen whales, Delphinids and Sperm whales) were found to be sighted at significantly greater distances from seismic sources during full power than during silence, illustrating a level of spatial avoidance to the seismic source. Probable avoidance of active seismic sources by odontocetes is suggested by analysis of the reports of observers on seismic vessels in UK waters, collated by the UK Joint Nature Conservation Committee (Stone 2003). In contrast to these reports of avoidance by some whales, other observations suggest that Sperm whales show little response and are not excluded from habitat by seismic surveys (e.g. Rankin and Evans 1998). The Sperm Whale Seismic Study conducted some controlled exposure experiments to determine the direction of movement in eight tagged Sperm whales over a series of 30-minute intervals during pre-exposure, ramp-up, and full-array firing (Jochens et al. 2008). Results showed no horizontal avoidance to airgun exposure of <150dB re 1µPa (rms) and diving and foraging rates were affected only in one individual (longer resting period at the surface and diving immediately following the final airgun transmission). McDonald et al. (1995) observed that a Blue whale stopped vocalising when within 10km of an active seismic vessel.. Recent work has shown that Fin whales shortened the duration, decreased the frequency range, and lowered the centre and peak frequencies of their calls in response to shipping and airgun noise (Castellote et al. 2012), and that Bowhead whale calling rates initially increase as seismic sound exposures increase from ambient, but that the rate levels off and peaks as seismic levels increase then falls off with further increase, until they are silent when cumulative SEL10-min values were above ~160dB re 1μPa 2 -s (Blackwell et al. 2015). (c) Non-Auditory Effects Scientists have studied the physiological stress response to noise in captive marine mammals. Thomas et al. (1990) exposed four captive Beluga whales to a playback of drilling noise, and found no changes in blood adrenaline or noradrenaline (stress hormones also known as epinephrine and Page 6-14

148 norepinephrine) levels measured immediately after playbacks. Romano et al. (2004) exposed a captive Bottlenose dolphin and a captive Beluga whale to sounds from a seismic watergun. They found detrimental changes in some hormones or blood cell counts (aldosterone and monocytes levels in the bottlenose dolphin; epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine levels in the beluga). Miksis et al. (2001) found that the heart rate in a captive Bottlenose dolphin increased in response to threat sounds produced by other dolphins. Rolland et al. (2012) have recently demonstrated that exposure to low-frequency ship noise may be associated with chronic stress in Right whales. (d) Temporary and Permanent Hearing Loss Potential physical impacts to the auditory apparatus can occur from exposure to intense sound and may result in a loss of hearing sensitivity. A temporary threshold shift (TTS) is hearing loss that is recovered within minutes or hours, whereas permanent threshold shift (PTS) is hearing loss that does not recover. The severity of TTS is expressed as the duration of hearing impairment and the magnitude of the shift in hearing sensitivity relative to pre-exposure sensitivity. TTS generally occurs at lower sound levels than PTS and repeated TTS, especially if the animal receives another sound exposure before recovery from the previous TTS, is thought to cause PTS. If the sound is intense enough, however, an animal can succumb to PTS without first experiencing TTS (Weilgart 2007). Though the relationship between the onset of TTS and the onset of PTS is not fully understood, TTS onset can be used to predict sound levels that are likely to result in PTS. Experiments with captive Bottlenose dolphins have shown that short tonal sounds can cause TTS (Schlundt et al. 2000). Mild TTS has also been demonstrated in dolphins exposed to lower sound levels for periods up to 50 min (Finneran et al. 2005; Kastak et al. 2005). Impulsive sounds from a watergun (Finneran et al. 2002) or airgun (Lucke et al. 2009) can cause TTS in Beluga whales and Harbour porpoises respectively; although the levels required for impulsive sounds to do so were much higher than the one second tonal signals. Cook (2006) found that captive odontocetes typically had more hearing loss than similar-aged free-ranging dolphins. Older Bottlenose dolphins in captivity are known to have reduced hearing sensitivity, especially at the higher frequencies, but the cause of this hearing loss is unknown (Ridgway and Carder 1997). (e) Reduction of Prey Availability Sound might indirectly affect marine mammals through its effects on prey abundance, behaviour, and distribution. Rising sound levels are a concern for fish populations (e.g. McCauley et al. 2003; Popper and Hastings 2009; Slabbekoorn et al. 2010), and marine fish are typically sensitive to the Hz range, where most seismic sound is produced. The potential impacts on fish are discussed in Section While no studies have investigated the indirect effects of seismic airguns on prey availability in marine mammals, it is possible that feeding opportunities for marine mammals might change because of seismic surveys Fish Recently, a working group of experts reviewed available data and determined broadly applicable sound exposure guidelines for fishes and sea turtles. The working group s recommendations are available in a technical report, Popper et al. (2014), which was developed and approved by the Accredited Standards Committee S3/SC 1 Animal Bioacoustics and registered with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The technical report contains the most recent and thorough synthesis of available information, and the results were used as the basis for this study s assessment. These sound exposure guidelines form the criteria to assess the potential for noise impacts on fish. To examine the potential impacts of underwater noise from airgun arrays on reef fish and coral communities, Woodside conducted a series of experiments (the Maxima studies) in 2007 during the Page 6-15

149 Maxima 3D MSS at Scott Reef off the north-west coast of Western Australia. The studies included experiments of fish pathology, physiology, and hearing sensitivity, as well as diversity and abundance of fish and coral via detailed Multiple Before/ After Control Impact (MBACI) studies. Woodside analysed in situ noise logger data collected during the Maxima studies to determine received sound exposure levels of site-attached fish and coral. The Maxima study results for fish pathology, physiology, and hearing sensitivity concur with the Popper et al. (2014) technical report, and due to the scope of this assessment, only the Popper et al. (2014) criteria have been used. There are many sources of anthropogenic sounds. Popper et al. (2014) classified sound sources by the type of sound produced (e.g. continuous versus impulsive), and separately evaluated impacts from data available for common sources such as seismic airguns and vessels. There are also a great many species of fish and their use of and susceptibility to sound can vary with species. Popper et al. (2014) categorised fishes according to likely hearing abilities based primarily on the presence or absence of a swim bladder and its role in hearing. Negative impacts of acoustic exposure can range from immediate effects such as mortality, hearing impairment such as temporary threshold shift (TTS), or masking communication space to more subtle, longer term effects such as behavioural changes, including being displaced from a preferred area. In general, any adverse effects of seismic sound on fish behaviour may depend on the species, the motivational state of the individuals exposed, and numerous other factors that are difficult, if not impossible, to quantify. This is exacerbated by limited data on the effects of airgun sound on fish, particularly under realistic at-sea conditions. Several of the above-mentioned potential effects are reviewed below and summarised by what circumstances might occur for fish and turtles exposed to sounds from this seismic survey, drawing substantially from the Popper et al. (2014) report. Please refer to Appendix C for a more detailed explanation of potential impacts on fish and the threshold criteria selected. (a) Effects on Behaviour The National Research Council (NRC 2005) discussed the possible effects of sound upon behaviour, including communication between conspecifics and detection of predators and prey. Popper et al. (2014) summarises: In its report, the NRC states that an action or activity becomes biologically significant to an individual animal when it interferes with normal behaviour and activity, or affects the animal s ability to grow, survive, and reproduce. Such effects may have consequences at the population-level and may affect the viability of the species (NRC 2005). Studying the responses of fish to anthropogenic sound is difficult; many factors could influence the results, and a careful approach based on well-designed experiments must be adopted. Experiments done with caged animals need to be considered in conjunction with studies on free-living animals, as results may differ due to the many factors that determine a wild animal s behaviour. A range of responses has been observed when the behaviour of wild fishes has been studied in the presence of anthropogenic sounds. Typically, studies have demonstrated that fish will generally move away from a loud acoustic source in order to minimise their exposure. Anthropogenic sounds have also been shown to cause changes in schooling patterns and distribution, including in relation to airgun operations (Engås et al. 1996; Engås and Løkkeborg 2002; Slotte et al. 2004; Løkkeborg et al. 2012a, 2012b; Popper et al. 2014). Woodside s studies specifically related to a coral reef-associated fish community found no detectable effect on species richness or abundance (Woodside 2007; Miller and Cripps 2013). Wood et al. (2012) also described that reductions in fish catches have been observed in commercial line and trawl fisheries during and after seismic surveys, but that catches have also increased, with the increase attributed to a change in fish activity in response to the airgun sounds. Page 6-16

150 (b) Masking Masking is a hearing impairment with respect to the relevant sound sources normally detected within the soundscape. The consequences of masking for fishes have not been fully examined. Popper et al. (2014) surmised, It is likely that increments in background sound within the hearing bandwidth of fishes and sea turtles may render the weakest sounds undetectable, render some sounds less detectable, and reduce the distance at which sound sources can be detected. Energetic and informational masking may increase as sound levels increase, so that the higher the sound level of the masker, the greater the masking. Masking only occurs as long as the masking sound is present, therefore masking resulting from a single pulse of sound (such as an airgun shot), or widely separated pulses, may not affect fitness. However, if impulsive sounds are generated repeatedly by many sources over a wide geographic area (such as concurrent seismic survey activity across the Bay of Bengal) then there is the possibility that the separate sounds may merge and the overall background noise be raised (e.g. Nieukirk et al. 2004). (c) Effects on Hearing Fish can experience both permanent and temporary hearing loss. Permanent hearing loss can be a result of the death of the of the sensory hair cells in the ear, damage to the innervating auditory nerve fibres Hearing loss can be permanent or temporary. Permanent loss of hearing may be a consequence of the death of the sensory hair cells in the ear, damage to the innervating auditory nerve fibres (Liberman 2014) or damage to other tissues in the auditory pathway (i.e. swim bladder). TTS has been demonstrated in some fishes, and its extent is of variable duration and magnitude. It results from either temporary changes in sensory hair cells of the inner ear and/or damage to auditory nerves innervating the ear (Smith et al. 2006; Liberman 2014). However, unlike mammals, sensory hair cells are constantly added in fishes, and replaced when damaged. Therefore when soundinduced hair cell death occurs in fishes, its effects may be mitigated over time by the addition of new hair cells (Popper et al. 2014). Although after the termination of a sound that causes TTS, normal hearing ability returns (depending upon many factors, including the duration and intensity of the sound exposure), while experiencing TTS, fishes may have a decrease in fitness in terms of communication, detecting predators or prey, and/or assessing their environment (Popper et al. 2014) Sea Turtles The Popper et al. (2014) report examined sea turtles as well as fish, and the assessment recommended guidelines form the criteria to assess the potential for noise impacts on turtles. In general, data on sea turtles seems to be less conclusive than it is for other species, from the perspective of both level of harm and reaction. Sea turtles have been shown to avoid low frequency sounds from an airgun (O'Hara and Wilcox 1990), but the received sound levels in these reports were unknown. Moein et al. (1995) found that penned Loggerhead turtles initially reacted to an airgun and then habituated to it. Caged Green and Loggerhead turtles increased swimming activity in response to an approaching airgun when the received rms SPL was above 166dB re 1μPa and they behaved erratically when the received rms SPL was approximately 175dB re 1μPa (McCauley et al. 2000). Auditory studies suggest that sea turtles appear to hear and respond to low-frequency sound, but there hearing thresholds appear to be high. Most studies appear to be inconclusive but there does Page 6-17

151 appear to be evidence that sea turtles, when exposed to airguns, will exhibit behavioural responses such as: increased swimming speed; increased activity; change in swimming direction; and avoidance Invertebrates The existing body of information on the direct effects of exposure to seismic airgun sound on marine invertebrates is very limited. However, there is some evidence of the potential for adverse effects on invertebrates. Based on the physical structure of their sensory organs, marine invertebrates appear to be specialised to respond to particle displacement components of an impinging sound field and not to the pressure component (Popper et al. 2001). Reviews such as those conducted by Department Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO [DFO] Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2004) have found that current knowledge doesn t provide enough scientific evidence to draw many conclusions (positive or negative effects) about exposure to airgun sounds, other than that seismic sound is unlikely to result in direct invertebrate mortality. The exception is invertebrates within 5m of the airgun. DFO (2004) did conclude that there is a high likelihood of invertebrates exhibiting a startle response, and/or a change in swimming or movement patterns in the presence of seismic sound, and both increases and decreases in catch rates of commercially exploited species have been observed. The current paucity of information in this field makes assessment of the impact from anthropogenic sound sources limited, but a number of studies are underway that will contribute greatly to the overall comprehension of potential impacts on these species. DFO concluded that there is a high likelihood of invertebrates exhibiting a startle response, and a change in swimming or movement patterns in the presence of seismic sound. It observed that both increases and decreases in catch rates of commercially exploited species have been documented but such changes do not occur consistently. Any effects on invertebrates are expected to be short-term with duration equal to the time of exposure, but may vary from species to species Marine Mammals - Acoustic Thresholds and Frequency Weighting Functions In 1998, a group of experts was convened in an effort to update and establish methods for determining acoustic exposure criteria (Gentry et al. 2004). The results of the expert group were published as Southall et al and are commonly referred to as the Southall criteria. The Southall criteria are used here as the bases for developing the exposure criteria. The potential for noise to affect marine animals depends on how well the animals can hear it. Noises are less likely to disturb or injure an animal if they are at frequencies that the animal cannot hear well. An exception occurs when the sound pressure is so high that it can physically injure an animal by non-auditory means (i.e. barotrauma). For sound levels below such extremes, the importance of sound components at particular frequencies can be scaled by frequency weighting relevant to an animal s sensitivity to those frequencies (Nedwell and Turnpenny 1998; Nedwell et al. 2007). Based on a literature review of marine mammal hearing and on physiological and behavioural responses to anthropogenic sound, Southall et al. (2007) proposed standard frequency weighting functions called M-weighting functions for three functional hearing groups of cetaceans (Table 6-5): Page 6-18

152 Low-frequency cetaceans (LFCs) mysticetes (Baleen whales); Mid-frequency cetaceans (MFCs) some odontocetes (Toothed whales); and High-frequency cetaceans (HFCs) odontocetes specialised for using high-frequencies. There has been a significant amount of research into the limits of exposure that will cause injury to the various groups of marine mammals as classified in Table 6-5. Southall et al. (2007) proposed thresholds for injury exposure which has since been refined by a number of research efforts including Finneran and Jenkins (2012) and Wood et al. (2012). This research is based on a number of considerations concerning the filtering of noise and the weightings required to assign equal loudness to various frequency ranges. The SEL metric integrates noise intensity over the period of exposure. For sounds that do not have a clear start or end time, or for very long-lasting exposures, the period of integration to use for its use in regulatory assessment is not well defined. Southall et al. (2007) suggest an integration time of 24 hours. The single shot SEL should be summed to calculate the cumulative SEL upon which effects are assessed. Using the Southall et al. suggestion, the sum of all shot SELs received over 24 hours would be proposed. Many of those exposures would be from large distances and consequently would contribute very little to the 24 hour sum. In fact, due to the nature of the rapid variation of seismic shot sound levels with distance, it is typically only a few shots from the closest animal approach distances that contributes substantially to the overall sum during normal towed seismic surveys. Therefore, the effective integration time can be much less than 24 hours. Nevertheless, the SEL from more than one shot must always be accounted for when using this metric. Calculating the multiple shot exposure levels marine mammals in the survey region would be exposed to from the seismic survey, is not achievable within the scope of this assessment, and is complex due to the unknown s regarding the typical paths of marine animals in the region. Therefore, the NMFS exposure criterion of 180dB re 1µPa (unweighted) for marine mammals to sequences of pulsed sounds (NMFS 1995; NMFS 2000) will be applied as the physiological impact threshold for the impact assessment. For a more detailed analysis of these values please refer to Appendix C. Table 6-5: Marine Mammal Functional Hearing Groups, Auditory Bandwidth (Estimated Lower to Upper Frequency Hearing Cut-off) and Genera Represented in Each Group Functional Hearing Group Low-frequency cetaceans Mid-frequency cetaceans Estimated Auditory Bandwidth 7Hz to 22kHz 150Hz to 160kHz Genera Represented (Number of species/subspecies) Balaena, Caperea, Eschrichtius, Megaptera, Balaenoptera (13 species/subspecies) Steno, Sousa, Sotalia, Tursiops, Stenella, Delphinus, Lagenodelphis, Lagenorhynchus, Lissodelphis, Grampus, Peponocephala, Feresa, Pseudorca, Orcinus, Globicephala, Orcaella, Physeter, Delphinapterus, Monodon, Ziphius, Berardius, Tasmacetus, Hyperoodon, Mesoplodon (57 species/subspecies) High-frequency cetaceans 200Hz to 180kHz Phocoena, Neophocaena, Phocoenoides, Platanista, Inia, Kogia, Lipotes, Pontoporia, Cephalorhynchus (20 species/subspecies) Source: Modified from Southall et al. (2007) Page 6-19

153 6.3.4 Marine Mammals - Behavioural Exposure Criteria Selection Southall et al. (2007) extensively review behavioural responses to sounds. Their review found that most marine mammals exhibited varying responses between rms SPLs of 140 and 180dB re 1µPa but lack of convergence in the data from multiple studies prevents them from suggesting explicit step functions. Lack of controls, precise measurements, appropriate metrics, and context dependency of responses (including the activity state of the animal) all contribute to variability. Southall et a (2007) propose a severity scale that increases with increased sound level as a qualitative scaling paradigm. The US National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) step function (unweighted) rms SPL of 160dB re 1µPa was used to determine the number of behavioural responses. Please refer to Appendix C for a more detailed assessment of how weightings and filters have been applied to these values Fish, Sea Turtles, Plankton, Eggs and Larvae - Acoustic Thresholds The Popper et al. (2014) threshold criteria and likelihood of potential impacts for fish, sea turtles, eggs and larvae (including plankton) exposed to seismic airguns have been applied. Whale sharks are treated as fish for this impact assessment. The effects thresholds are summarised in Table 6-6. The likelihood of impairment due to masking or a behavioural change is also based on the distance of the fish from the source. The ranges considered are near, intermediate, and far from the source. Although not strictly defined, near the source is taken to be tens of metres; intermediate is hundreds of metres; far is thousands of metres. The relative risk of an effect is then rated as being high, moderate, and low with respect to source distance and animal type. The report makes no assumptions about source or received levels because there are insufficient data to quantify what these distances might be. However, in general the nearer the animal is to the source the higher the likelihood of high energy and a resultant effect. In determining these distances and the potential effects, actual source and received levels, along with the sensitivity to the sources by the animals of concern should be considered. The ratings for effects presented in Popper et al. (2014) are highly subjective, as admitted by the authors. However they will be used for the impact assessment because the authorship group represents some of the most respected and leading experts in the field and the ratings represent the general consensus of the group. While it is evident that behavioural reactions can occur due to exposure to seismic airgun sounds, there are no data that can be applied to develop guidelines (Popper et al. 2014). Estimates of the behavioural response will therefore be conducted using the relative risk criteria. The SEL metric integrates noise intensity over the period of exposure. For sounds that do not have a clear start or end time, or for very long-lasting exposures, the period of integration for its use in regulatory assessment is not well defined. However Popper et al. (2014) recommended an integration time of 24 hours. The application of the cumulative SEL metric which should be used to assess effects is described in Section Although the TTS ranges are provided for information, they have been determined for a single shot SEL only Sea Turtle - Behavioural Exposure Criteria Selection There is a paucity of data regarding the response of sea turtles to acoustic exposure, and no studies of hearing loss or the effects of exposure to loud sounds. (McCauley et al. 2000) recorded the behavioural response of caged turtles Green (Chelonia mydas) and Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) to an approaching seismic airgun. For received levels above 166dB re 1μPa rms the turtles increased their swimming activity and above 175dB re 1μPa rms they began to behave erratically, which was interpreted as an agitated state. The 166dB re 1μPa rms level has been used as the threshold level Page 6-20

154 for a disturbance behavioural response by NMFS and continued in the Arctic Programmatic Environment Impact Statement (PEIS) ([NSF] National Science Foundation (U.S.) et al. 2011). At the time, and in the absence of any data on which to determine the sound levels that may cause injury, TTS or PTS onset were considered possible at rms SPL 180dB re 1μPa ([NSF] National Science Foundation (U.S.) et al. 2011). Some additional data suggest that behavioural responses occur closer to SPL 175dB re 1μPa rms and TTS or PTS at even higher levels (Moein et al. 1995), but the received levels were not easily known and the NSF (2011) PEIS maintained the earlier NMFS criteria levels of rms SPL of 166 B re 1μPa for behavioural response and injury, respectively. Popper et al. (2014) suggests injury to turtles may occur for sound exposures of >207dB peak SPL or >210dB SEL (Table 6-6). Popper et al. (2014) define sound levels that may result in behavioural response, but does indicate a high likelihood of response near an airgun (tens of metres), moderate response at intermediate ranges (hundreds of metres), and low response far (thousands of metres) from the airgun. Both the NMFS criteria for behavioural disturbance (rms SPL of 166dB re 1μPa) and the Popper et al. (2014) injury criteria (as outlined in Section 6.3.5) will be evaluated for this analysis, though this doesn t consider the ranges at which impairment may occur Predicted Sound Propagation from the AD-5 Marine Seismic Survey The bathymetry of AD-5 is entirely beyond the continental shelf break, approximately 40 to 50km offshore. Water depth in the block is greater than 2,000m. The propagation of sound in the marine environment is highly dependent on the depth and geometry of seabed, implying that Sound propagation properties in AD-5 will be reasonably consistent throughout the survey area. Calculating noise propagation is so complex that a computer model is required to simulate the noise field. Refer to Appendix C for examples. The model represents a generic 4,000cui airgun array at 2,000 m water depth. The source levels and directivity of the airgun array have been calculated using JASCO s Airgun Array Source Model (AASM) (MacGilivray 2006). The model resolves the complex mathematics which is required to estimate sound levels experienced at various receptor locations. The pressure signatures of the individual airguns of the 4,000cui array were computed with AASM. The model produces notional point source pressure signatures for each airgun of the array. These signatures were combined to calculate far-field source pressure metrics, representing horizontal direction emissions directly behind (endfire) and to the side (broadside) that are listed in Table 6-7. Full details of the model and the assumptions that were used are provided in Appendix C. The model assumed muddy sand over sand seabed and considered two depths, however only the calculations for the 2000 m water depth apply here. The model considered a receiver at 100m depth and had a 5 m resolution. This was not a comprehensive modelling exercise, but the theoretical tracking of a single acoustic pulse that matches the sound pressure generated by a single pulse from the 4000cui acoustic array. It represents a simplified estimation of the sound levels that will be projected Deep Water (a) Deep Water Thresholds Cetaceans The injury and behavioural threshold radii for the 4,000cui airgun array, in 2,000m deep water are presented in Table Deep Water Thresholds Fish, Sea Turtles, Eggs and Larvae The injury and TTS threshold radii for the 4,000cui airgun array, in 2,000m deep water are presented in Table 6-9 and Table Page 6-21

155 Table 6-6: Peak SPL and SEL Dual Thresholds for Acoustic Airgun Effects on Fish, Sea Turtles, Fish Eggs and Fish Larvae Type of Animal Mortality and Potential Mortal Injury Impairment Recoverable Injury TTS Masking Behaviour Fish: no swim bladder (particle motion detection) > 219 db 24 h SEL or > 213 db peak > 216 db 24 h SEL or > 213 db peak >> 186 db 24 h SEL (N) Low (I) Low (F) Low (N) High (I) Moderate (F) Low Fish: swim bladder is not involved in hearing (particle motion detection) 210 db 24 h SEL or > 207 db peak 203 db 24 h SEL or > 207 db peak >> 186 db 24 h SEL (N) Low (I) Low (F) Low (N) High (I) Moderate (F) Low Fish: swim bladder is involved in hearing (primarily pressure detection) 207 db 24 h SEL or > 207 db peak 203 db 24 h SEL or > 207 db peak 186 db 24 h SEL (N) Low (I) Low (F) Moderate (N) High (I) High (F) Moderate (N) High (N) High (N) Low (N) High Sea turtles 210 db 24 h SEL or >207 db peak (I) Low (I) Low (I) Low (I) Moderate (F) Low (F) Low (F) Low (F) Low (N) Moderate (N) Moderate (N) Low (N) Moderate Eggs and larvae > 210 db 24 h SEL or > 207 db peak (I) Low (I) Low (I) Low (I) Low (F) Low (F) Low (F) Low (F) Low Source: Adapted from Popper et al. (2014) Notes: peak sound pressure level db re 1µPa; 24-hr SEL db re 1µPa 2 s. All criteria are presented as sound pressure even for fish without swim bladders since no data for particle motion exist. Relative risk (high, moderate, low) is given for animals at three distances from the source defined in relative terms as near (N), intermediate (I), and far (F). Page 6-22

156 Table 6-7: Horizontal Source Level Specifications (10 2,000 Hz) for the Seismic Airgun Array (4,000 cui) at 7m Water Depth Direction Zero-to-peak SPL (db re 1m) rms SPL (db re 1m) SEL (db re 1 µpa 2 ) kHz kHz 1 2kHz Broadside Endfire Table 6-8: Horizontal Distances (in metres) from the Source to Injury and Behavioural Thresholds, 4,000cui Airgun Array in 2,000m Water Depth # Criteria rms SPL (db re 1µPa) R (m) Injury Behaviour 160 2,000 Table 6-9: Maximum Horizontal Distances (in metres) from the Source to Modelled Impact Criteria for Fish, Sea Turtles, Fish Eggs, and Fish Larvae, 2,000m Water Depth # Type of Animal Mortality and Potential Mortal Injury Recoverable Injury Single Shot TTS Peak SPL Peak SPL SEL Fish: no swim bladder <50 <50 <50 Fish: swim bladder not involved in hearing <90 <90 <90 Fish: swim bladder involved in hearing <90 <90 90 Sea turtles < Plankton, fish eggs and larvae < # Horizontal grid resolution is 50m, receivers are at 100m depth. Thresholds are listed in Popper et al. (2014). Table 6-10: Maximum Horizontal Distances (in metres) from the Source to Modelled 100m Depth rms SPLs for Behavioural Response for Sea Turtles, 2,000m Water Depth # Turtle Behavioural Response Threshold, rms SPL, (db re 1 µpa) R (m) # Per-pulse rms SPLs for sea turtles, NMFS criteria (Section 6.1.1). Horizontal grid resolution is 50m Page 6-23

157 6.3.8 Projected Potential Impacts Marine Mammals Sound produced by seismic airguns has the potential to cause physiological effects of varying severity from behaviour modifications up to auditory injury to marine mammals. Injurious effects are unlikely except in extreme proximity to the airgun array source. In consideration of the mitigation measures that are planned (IAGC and JNCC guidelines), which do not require the source to be shut down once operational; it is possible that marine mammals could experience behavioural reactions and perhaps temporary physiological change (i.e. TTS). However, the injury ranges for all animals are smaller than the 500m observation radius applied prior to start-up under the IAGC/JNCC criteria. It is assumed that animals will divert around this zone once the airguns are in full operation. The effects on cetaceans are generally expected to be limited to avoidance of the area around the seismic operation and short-term changes in behaviour. The behavioural responses could occur within 2.0km of the airgun source, using the 160dB re 1µPa NMFS criteria. In general, the temporal and spatial scale of behavioural response on marine mammals would likely be short-term and limited to the localised area surrounding an active airgun. Because single seismic surveys are conducted on relatively small spatial scales (e.g. on closely spaced transects in small areas) or temporal scales (e.g. widely spaced transects), significant effects at the population level are not expected except in very unusual circumstances, none of which apply to this survey. Therefore, adverse effects on mammals caused by exposure to the proposed seismic survey are expected to be negligible Turtles Sound produced by seismic airguns could cause physiological effects, injury, and perhaps mortality to sea turtles if they are within 90 m of an airgun source (Popper et al. 2014). No population-level effects would be expected given the restricted zone of pathological effects. Impairment ranges were not determined, however that could occur at ranges within the disturbance radius. Airgun sounds could potentially disturb turtles close to airgun sources (within 850m in deep water) according to the NMFS 166dB re 1µPa criteria. To be significant, such behavioural changes would have to result in an overall reduction in the health and abundance at the population level. In general, the temporal and spatial scale of behavioural response on sea turtles would likely be short-term and limited to the localised area immediately surrounding an active airgun array. Because single seismic surveys are conducted on relatively small spatial scales (e.g. on closely spaced transects in small areas) or temporal scales (e.g. widely spaced transects), significant effects at the population level are not expected. Therefore, adverse effects on sea turtles caused by exposure to the proposed seismic survey are expected to be negligible Fish Sound produced by seismic airgun arrays could cause physiological effects, injury, and perhaps mortality to a small number of some fish species, particularly larval and egg stages, if the animals are in extreme proximity to the airgun source. However, no population-level effects would be expected given the restricted zone of pathological effects. Similarly, airgun sound could potentially disturb fish close to airgun sources. To be significant, such behavioural changes would have to result in an overall reduction in the health, abundance, or catchability of a species of concern at the population level. In general, the temporal and spatial scale of behavioural response on marine fish would likely be short-term and limited to the localised area immediately surrounding an active airgun. Because single seismic surveys are conducted on relatively small spatial scales (e.g. on closely spaced Page 6-24

158 transects in small areas) or temporal scales (e.g. widely spaced transects), significant effects at the population level are not expected except in very unusual circumstances (e.g. small, isolated populations). Therefore, adverse effects on various life stages of fish caused by exposure to the proposed seismic surveys are expected to be negligible in both deep and shallow water. Spatial relocation of the fish may lead to short-term(of the order of a day or less) displacement of catches for fishermen, any effects will be temporary and normal condition should be reinstated quite quickly impacts to fish catches caused by acoustic disturbance and displacement is considered to be low risk Plankton, Eggs and Larvae The potential impacts of the 2D and 3D MSS on plankton, eggs and larvae are expected to be extremely low, with mortality rates caused by exposure to airgun sounds being so low compared to natural mortality that the impact from seismic surveys must be regarded as insignificant. Any impacts that do occur are likely to only occur in very close proximity (<5m) to airguns, the range at which they are likely to suffer mortality and tissue damage. These impacts are considered to be negligible Marine Invertebrates The impact of the 2D and 3D MSS on marine invertebrates is expected to be very similar to those on fish Indirect Impacts The proposed airgun operations are not expected to result in any permanent modification of habitats used by marine mammals or sea turtles, or to the food sources they use. The main potential impact issue associated with the proposed activities will be temporarily elevated noise levels and the associated direct effects on marine mammals and sea turtles, as discussed above. During the 2D and 3D MSS, only a small fraction of the available habitat would be exposed to seismic noise at any given time. Disturbance to marine fish and invertebrates would be short-term, and fish would return to their pre-disturbance behaviour once the seismic activity ceased. Thus, the proposed surveys will have little impact on the abilities of marine mammals or sea turtles to feed in the area where seismic acquisition is planned. Some mysticetes feed on concentrations of zooplankton. A reaction by zooplankton to a seismic impulse would only be relevant to whales if it caused a concentration of zooplankton to scatter. Pressure changes of sufficient magnitude to cause that type of reaction would probably occur only very close to the source if at all. Potential impacts on zooplankton behaviour are predicted to be negligible, and consequently potential impacts on mysticetes due to loss of feed are not expected Mitigation Measures and Operational Guidelines Woodside intend to follow the guidelines developed by the International Association of Geophysical Contractors (IAGC) and UK Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) for minimising the risk of injury and disturbance to marine mammals from seismic surveys (IAGC 2011: JNCC 2010). The guidelines are formulated as a series of operating parameters which are designed to ensure that any potential impacts to marine mammals are avoided. It should also be noted that for almost all other mobile marine species the initial response is avoidance, and that it is reasonable to assume that the mitigation measures applied for mammals will also reduce the potential for harm to fish. Whilst it is expected that turtles will also exhibit an avoidance response, this does not seem to be as pronounced as with other species, and for the purposes of operational management turtles will be treated as mammals with respect to avoiding the impacts that may be caused by close proximity to an operating airgun. The IAGC/ JNCC guidelines are framed around a number of initiatives targeted at reducing impacts to marine mammals: Page 6-25

159 appropriate maintenance of vessels and associated equipment; maximizing efficiency of seismic surveys to reduce operation times, where possible; pre-start search (30 mins shallow water, 60 mins deep water); Marine Mammal Observer present; all sightings recorded; soft start (20 mins); prestart delay zones (500m of source); and procedures for undertaking line changes (turns). The seismic vessels will use a suitably trained Marine Mammal Observer (MMO) at all times during operations. The MMO will be fully conversant with the IAGC/JNCC guidelines and will be trained in understanding the patterns and movements of marine mammals that may occur in the Project operational area. The MMO will have an advisory role within the command hierarchy of the vessel to advise on the application and implementation of the mitigation measures. In accordance with the IAGC/JNCC guidelines the MMO will undertake a pre-survey search for marine mammals for 30 or 60 minutes prior to soft start-up and commencement of survey activities. Whilst it is not feasible that an MMO will be available for every daylight hour, it is crucial that they will undertake the pre-survey search prior to each soft start. All sighting of marine mammals, turtles and Whale sharks will be logged and reported. The MMO will be positioned on a high platform with a clear unobstructed view of the horizon and communication channels to the crew. The MMO will advise the crew on operational matters following a decision-making flowchart (Figure 6-3) as represented in the guidelines Pre-acquisition Visual Observation The pre-acquisition search of 30 or 60 minutes will take place prior to the commencement of soft start of the airgun array. The MMO will make a visual assessment to determine if any marine mammals (or turtles and Whale sharks) are within 500m of the centre of the airgun array. The 60 minute search will apply when acquisition will take place in deep water, and it is expected that there may be deep diving marine mammals which are known to dive for longer than 30 minutes. If marine mammals (or turtles and Whale sharks) are detected within 500m of the centre of the airgun array (the mitigation zone) then the commencement of the soft start for the airgun array will be delayed until at least 20 minutes after the animal or animals have left the mitigation zone. Once the soft start has commenced or whilst the guns are at full power, if a marine mammal (turtle or Whale shark) is detected within 500m of the centre of the airgun array there is no requirement to stop acquisition. Page 6-26

160 Figure 6-3: Decision Making Flowchart for Airgun Start-up and Shutdown Source: JNCC (2010) The Soft Start The soft start is defined as the time that the airguns commence discharging until the time that full operation power is reached. Power will be built up slowly from a low-energy start-up, usually starting with the smallest airgun in the array and gradually adding others over a period of at least 20 minutes to give adequate time for marine mammals, turtles and Whale sharks to leave the area. The build-up in power will occur in uniform stages to provide constant increase in output. There will be a soft start every time the airguns are used. Excessively long soft starts will be avoided, since the objective is to trigger an avoidance response in any nearby animals and excessively slow build-ups may not achieve this effectively. Wherever possible, soft starts will be planned so they commence within daylight hours so as to enable the effectiveness of the MMO. If for any reason the airguns have stopped and not restarted for at least 10 minutes than a pre-shooting search and a 20 minute soft start will be carried out prior to recommencement of the survey. IAGC/JNCC guidelines require that where two or more vessels or operating in adjacent areas and taking turns to shoot to avoid causing seismic interference with each other, then the soft start and delay procedures for each vessel shall be communicated to and applied on all vessels involved in surveying. Woodside will enquire of the operators of all adjacent blocks to determine if any are undergoing seismic survey concurrently with these surveys and coordinate activities accordingly. Page 6-27

161 Line Change At the end of each survey line each survey vessel will undertake a turn with a radius of approximately 8km this is expected to take approximately 120 to 240 minutes. The airgun array will be shut down at the end of each survey line and prior to restarting a pre-acquisition search will be undertaken for marine mammals, turtles and Whale sharks at the start of the next line to be surveyed. Thus a preshooting search and soft start-up will be undertaken as a starting procedure at the start of the next survey line Residual Risk due to Noise from Air Gun Array The residual risk rating of noise due to the operation of the air gun array is low, assuming implementation of, and compliance with, the mitigation measures outlined above. 6.4 Potential Impact on Air Quality Exhaust emissions Operation of the ships internal combustion engines will result in the emission of pollutant gases from the exhausts. Gases of concern are oxides of nitrogen (NO x ), oxides of sulphur (SO x ) and volatile organic carbon (VOC), which in the context of diesel emissions is often referred to as black smoke. There are currently no legislated air quality guidelines in Myanmar for either emission, or ambient air quality. The 2D and 3D MSS s in AD-5 will be carried out from a distance of 95 to 160km from the shoreline, and any exhaust emissions from the vessels will rapidly dissipate and not result in any appreciable elevation of ambient air quality at any sensitive receptors Mitigation Adherence to MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI requirements specifically: Vessel has a valid International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate (IAPP) as appropriate to class Use of low sulphur fuel (sulphur content not to exceed 3.5% m/m) when it is available Adequate maintenance of mechanical/motor systems (vessel operator to maintain maintenance and inspection log) Practice segregation of waste - only appropriate non-hazardous wastes to be disposed in incinerator (wastes which cannot be safely incinerated are to be disposed of at shore base) Residual Risk due to Exhaust Emissions The residual risk rating of impacts to air quality due to the operation of the survey vessels is low, assuming implementation of, and compliance with, the mitigation measures outlined above Greenhouse Gas Emissions The emission of greenhouse gas (GHG) is an unavoidable consequence of the operation of vessels. An extensive analysis of the GHG emission of shipping is presented in the Third IMO Greenhouse Gas Study 2014 (IMO 2014) where a number of factors were developed for the emission of greenhouse gases based on the mass of fuel consumed. It should be noted that both NO 2 and methane (CH 4 ) are greenhouse gases and emitted in relatively trace amounts by ships. For the purposes of this project they can be considered to make a negligible contribution. The principal greenhouse gas emitted by internal combustion engines is carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Factors for the generation of carbon dioxide from various fuels are presented in Table Page 6-28

162 Table 6-11: Specific Emission Rates of CO 2 for Various Shipping Fuels Fuel Type CO 2 Emissions (g/g fuel) Residual fuel oil (RFO) Low sulphur fuel oil (LSFO) Marine gas oil (a distillate product) (MGO) Liquid natural gas (LNG) Source: IMO (2014.) Thus greenhouse gas emissions in tons equivalent of carbon dioxide for the project are set out in Table 6-12 below. Table 6-12: Greenhouse Gas Calculation Vessel Fuel* Consumed (tonnes) Estimated CO 2 Emission (Tonnes) 3D Seismic Survey Vessel 8,500t 26,469 Chase boats 3,400t 10,588 Gravity coring vessel 850t 2,647 2D Seismic Survey Vessel 1,650t 5,138 2D Chase Boats 660t 2,055 Tender 200t 623 Total 47,520 tonnes *fuel estimated as Low Sulphur Fuel Oil from Table Mitigation All vessels will need to demonstrate appropriate maintenance records and maintain them through the life of the surveys. By planning the surveys in the periods when the calmer sea is are expected, fuel consumption is expected to be optimal compared to operations in rough seas Residual Risk due to GHG Emissions Operation of the vessels will generate relatively small amounts of greenhouse gases, the mitigation measures proposed will reduce the impact to as low as reasonably possible (ALARP) a Low Risk. Page 6-29

163 6.5 Impact on Benthos and Sediments Potential impacts Gravity coring will result in some localised displacement of sediments that is expected to be extremely short-term and localised. The cores will be retained on the vessel as samples and will not be returned the sea. Seismic survey activity is not expected to have any impact on sediments, nor is it expected to alter the characteristics of the mud volcanoes near the coastline Residual Risk to Benthos from Seabed Coring The residual impact to the seabed from coring operations is considered low risk. 6.6 The Potential Introduction of Invasive Marine Species Potential Impact Project vessels that have mobilised from international waters risk the introduction or establishment of Invasive Marine Species (IMS) to the operational area from ballast water or from biofouling. The use (intake/ storage/ discharge) of seawater ballast is a standard operation in the management of vessel stability during operations. It is possible that marine species within the water column can be present and can be taken in with the intake of seawater into ballast tanks and can survive within ballast tanks and can be relocated and then discharged with the ballast water at the Project operational area. This can lead to the introduction of non-native marine species which can become invasive marine species if the environmental conditions at the point of release are suitable. Biofouling on vessels hulls, on other external/internal niche areas, and on equipment routinely immersed in water also pose a potential risk of translocating marine species. If these species become dislodged or reproduce whilst attached, this can lead to the introduction of non-native marine species which can become invasive if the environmental conditions at the point of introduction are suitable. This risk increases when vessels have spent time in areas that are known sources of potential IMS. If introduced, IMS have the ability to survive and out-compete the native species in their new environment. Once established these organisms can have significant social, economic and environmental impacts. Baseline studies suggest that the waters of the Bay of Bengal are already extensively contaminated by exotic species that may have been introduced in this manner (Htun and Swe 2014). Nearshore marine habitats are more susceptible to the establishment of invasive marine species than the deeper ocean. The distance and depth of water provides a natural buffer area between offshore areas and the nearshore habitats that are susceptible to IMS establishment. As the MSS will take place well offshore in deep water, the effects of dispersal and dilution of the IMS larvae especially those in the planktonic larval stage reduces the risk of successful establishment in nearshore susceptible environments Mitigation All Woodside-contracted vessels will comply with IMO Ballast Water requirements. Vessels which have obtained their ballast water from an area outside of Bay of Bengal/ Andaman Sea are not to discharge it within 50 nautical miles from land, or in water depths less than 200m. Vessels to maintain record of ballast water uptake and discharge locations. Page 6-30

164 Note that freshwater ballast can be discharged. Woodside s IMS risk assessment process will be applied Risk from Introduction of Marine Invasive Species After application of the mitigation measures, the residual impact from invasive marine species is low. 6.7 Routine Waste Discharges Discharge of Bilge Water, Grey Water, Sewage and Putrescible Wastes Potential Impacts There are a number of potential waste streams which may be generated by the survey vessels, which may be categorized as follows: General garbage-waste such as plastics, paper glass and other artificial wastes. Incinerator ash (if the vessel has an on-board incinerator). Black water - discharge from the sewerage sanitation system. Grey water-from laundry, shower and kitchen facilities. Wastes and effluents containing oils or other hydrocarbons, from equipment wash down water, bilge water or from machinery maintenance. Waste containing other harmful chemicals such as washed down detergents or solvents. If not disposed of correctly these wastes could potentially generate significant negative impacts on the marine environment, particularly on water quality and the health of marine fauna. Potential impacts from the various types of wastes are shown in Table 6-13 below Mitigation Measures All survey vessels will comply fully with international agreed standards regulated under MARPOL 73/78 and relevant legislation: In particular, MARPOL (73/78): o o o o o Annex I: Regulation for prevention of pollution by oil; Annex II: Regulation for prevention of pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk; Annex III: Regulation for prevention of pollution by Harmful Substances Carried by Sea in Packaged Form; Annex IV: Regulation for prevention of pollution by sewage from ship; Annex V: Prevention of pollution by garbage from ships. Sewage discharges treated and disinfected in the treatment plant and discharged more than 3nm from shore. Untreated sewage will be discharged greater than 12nm from shore. Bilge water contaminated with hydrocarbons must be contained and disposed of onshore, except if the oil content of the effluent without dilution does not exceed 15ppm or an IMO approved oil/water separator (as required by vessel class) is used to treat the bilge water. Page 6-31

165 The vessel will display placards which inform all the crew and passengers of waste discharge requirements. Additionally, the vessel will carry waste management plan providing procedure for minimizing, collecting, storing, processing and disposing of garbage waste inventories will be maintained. Putrescible waste comminuted or ground to particle size <25mm will only be discharged greater than 3nm from shore. Putrescible waste not comminuted or ground will only be discharged greater than 12nm from shore. No plastics or non-food garbage will be discharged to sea. Where possible, garbage will be incinerated on-board. Design, construction, operation and maintenance of incinerator installed on board will be complied with the IMO Standard Specification for Shipboard Incinerators. Any other non-burnable waste generated on-board will be segregated into recyclables. All non-sea dischargeable garbage will be stored to be subsequently given to the port reception facilities. Table 6-13: Selection of Wastes and Their Associated Potential Impacts Waste Category Plastics Solvents and other water insoluble wastes Detergents and other surfactant materials Sewerage Incinerator ash Potential Impact Persist for long periods in the marine environment, they either do not or they take a long time to degrade. Plastics are known to have serious health effect on the number of species, especially turtles and marine birds. These materials are known to have serious chronic effects on many marine biota with pathways to levels of harm from both ingestion and topical contact. Heavier materials can form emulsions and sink, mobilizing sources of contamination and creating pollution with a tendency to persist for some time. Can disburse extensively in the marine environment and cause contamination and accumulation in a number of species, with the potential of contaminating fish stocks for human consumption. Sewage can carry nutrients and harmful bacteria which can impact natural systems. Has the potential to carry potentially soluble pollutants such as heavy metals and other contaminants which may have immediate health effects on marine fauna and could have the potential to bio-accumulate Residual Risk from Routine Waste Discharges It is expected that after application of the mitigation measures there will be little residual impact due to routine waste discharges - Low Risk rating. Page 6-32

166 6.8 Potential Impacts of Night Lighting Lighting of the Vessels The seismic and support vessels will require lighting for safety of navigation and for safety of crew where they are required to conduct operations on deck at night. Artificial lighting from vessels may have potential to cause attraction of, or disorientation to, marine fauna. The seismic and support vessels will be moving and not remain stationary. Vessel lighting is required to comply with the International Maritime Organisation s International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea Light regulations apply from sunset to sunrise, in conditions of restricted visibility and in all other circumstances when it is deemed necessary. Regulations concerning shapes apply during the day. During night time operations, it is likely that some additional lights may be necessary to provide safe working conditions for the crew. The maximum light spill will occur around walkways. Light spill from the vessel is equivalent to a new moon on a clear night immediately surrounding the vessel Potential Impacts General Light emissions can affect fauna in two main ways: Behaviour: many organisms are adapted to natural levels of lighting and the natural changes associated with the day and night cycle as well as the night-time phase of the moon. Artificial lighting has the potential to create a constant level of light at night that can override these natural levels and cycles. Orientation: organisms such as marine turtles and birds may also use lighting from natural sources to orient themselves in a certain direction at night. In instances where an artificial light source is brighter than a natural source, the artificial light may act to override natural cues leading to disorientation. Artificial light can disrupt the vertical migration patterns of aquatic invertebrates. Further, fishes are known to aggregate to artificial light sources Turtles Light pollution reaching turtle nesting beaches is widely considered detrimental owing to interference with important nocturnal activities including choice of nesting sites and orientation/navigation to the sea by post-nesting females and hatchlings (Lutcavage et al. 1997; Pendoley 1997; Witherington and Martin 1996, 2003). Artificial lighting may affect the location that turtles emerge to the beach, the success of nest construction, whether nesting is abandoned, and even the seaward return of adults (Salmon et al. 1995; Salmon 2003). The distance of the AD-5 activities from the shore implies that any impact of night time light spill on turtles is highly unlikely Fish Lighting from the presence of the stationary survey vessel may result in the localised aggregation of fish below the vessel. However, this is very unlikely to occur when the vessel is moving. These aggregations of fish are considered localised and temporary and any long term changes to fish species composition or abundance is considered highly unlikely. Page 6-33

167 Seabirds Weise et al. (2001) presented a review on the effect of light from platforms in the North Sea on seabirds. They noted that seabirds are highly visually orientated and that large attractions of birds, and in some cases mortality of birds, have often been documented by lighthouses, communication towers, buildings and oil platforms. Injuries can occur through direct collisions and the rate of collision is (as inferred from literature) related to the cross-sectional area of the obstacle, amount of light and number of birds present. Black (2005) reported on two cases of mass seabird mortalities from ship strikes in the Southern Ocean. In both cases, mortalities occurred when the vessel was at anchor near seabird colonies and conducting night deck operations during periods of reduced visibility. Those conditions will not be encountered in the case of these MSS. A number of seabirds were identified as having a presence in the Project operational area (Chapter 5). These birds species may transit the operational area, but only rarely and then in low numbers. Given the absence of critical habitat (foraging, breeding, nesting areas) for these species within the operational area, the risk of interaction between the marine birds and the seismic activities is very low. The environmental risk associated with collision from seabirds attracted to the light is considered to be low given the slow moving speed of the vessels and limited upright infrastructure such as sails, guy lines etc Mitigation Lighting will be minimised to sources required for navigational and operational safety reasons. On-board operational lighting will be located and oriented in such a way to direct working light where it is needed, and minimise light spill to the marine environment Residual Risk from Lighting Given the extended distance of the survey to coastline and potential turtle rookeries and basis that the vessel is constantly moving; combined with the mitigation measures the residual impact of light on marine species is considered to be almost negligible Low Risk rating. 6.9 Potential for Spills and Fuel Losses at Sea Potential Impacts The potential source of spills and fuel losses during the MSS are from deck spills or during loss during bunkering. Based on the capacity of storage containers, the likely volume of a spill on deck is approximately 50 litres. Bunding and containment lips on vessels also act to minimise the risk of discharge to the marine environment. The potential loss of fuel during bunkering operations may occur due to a partial or total failure of a bulk transfer hose or fittings. If this were to occur automatic fail safe responses on the bunker vessel will shut down the transfer immediately, and losses would be confined to the volume of the hose and connections (up to 2.5m 3 ) which would spill onto the ship deck s or the marine environment. The likelihood of a vessel collision occurring and resulting in a large diesel spill is remote. For a vessel collision to occur and lead to fuel loss the collision must have enough force to penetrate the vessel hull, be in the location of the fuel tanks and the fuel tank must be full or at a volume which is higher than the point of interaction. Oceanographic modelling and ADCP measurements of the currents in the Bay of Bengal suggest that through the study period there will be a prevailing surface current to the north-east of approximately Page 6-34

168 0.3m/s in the Project operational area. Data collected from the weather station at Yangon airport suggests that for the months of October through to January the prevailing winds will be to the southwest of approximately 4km an hour, and that for February through to April they will blow to the northeast at around 4 to 6km/h ( accessed June 2015). Thus any spill plumes are likely to have a northerly drift, roughly parallel to the coast in the early part of the season, and drifting more towards the coast in the later months from February through to April. Number 6 fuel oil is persistent oil, and only 5-10% is expected to evaporate within the first few hours of the spill. Consequently, the oil can be carried hundreds of miles in the form of scattered tarballs by winds and currents. Tarballs will vary in size from several yards to a few centimetres and may be very difficult to detect visually or with remote sensing techniques (NOAA referred June 2015). Elevated concentrations of surface hydrocarbons may impact marine fauna including marine mammals, reptiles and seabirds, shorelines and socio economic receptors, albeit on a short term basis. Impacts to cetaceans from direct oiling are generally limited to skin and eye irritation if they surface in a slick however studies have shown that cetaceans have the ability to detect and avoid surface slicks (Geraci and St. Aubin 1990). Marine turtles are not known to show avoidance behaviour and may suffer from irritation of mucosal membranes (NOAA 2010). Several seabird species are known to forage in the waters offshore Myanmar, the majority are well represented and listed as Least Concern by the IUCN. Impacts to seabirds may include oiling of plumage leading to hypothermia especially for birds resting on the sea surface. Emergent corals and mangroves (Figure 3-2) along the Ayeyarwady coastline may eventually be contacted in the unlikely event that spills remain uncontained, resulting in mortality and reduced growth rates. Fish species may be impacted by short term acute toxicity from concentrations of entrained hydrocarbons with the greatest impacts documented for early life stages (larvae and juveniles) (NRC 1995). Adult pelagic fish, commercially important species reported, are less likely to be impacted by surface spills in open-ocean environments due to rapid dilution and adults are highly mobile and can move away from spill affected areas (Lord and Michel 2003) Mitigation Measures Collision avoidance: o o o o Surveys will take place in the period of calmest weather and seas in the Project operational area. Seismic survey vessel will be relatively slow moving (approximately 4.5 knots for MSS only). Notice to Mariners will be issued with the Myanmar ports authority to advise as many vessels as possible of the survey activities and timing. There will be particular vigilance and radar tracking by the survey vessels and chase boats of other vessels in the area that will be advised of the activity by radio and if necessary hailed. Spill containment and avoidance: o o o All vessels will need to demonstrate compliance with international standards for bunkering of fuel, including double-walled, multi cell fuel storage in collision safe areas of the vessel. All ships Masters will need to be aware of and follow standard procedures concerning the interaction of the survey vessels. Marine seismic survey vessels will not be anchored for the period of the survey, and are expected to continue steaming at very low velocities (MSS only). Page 6-35

169 o o Re-fuelling activities will only take place in daylight hours. Bunker vessels will need to demonstrate international safety standards in compliance with MARPOL and Woodside internal standards for bunkering hoses & spill kits. Emergency response: o o o In the event of any incidents which resulted in the release of hydrocarbon fuels to the marine environment, the survey contractor will implement the project-specific ERP. Any significant fuel losses to the marine environment will be immediately reported to the relevant third-party authorities. Crew induction to include spill prevention, reporting and use of spill response equipment Residual Risk from Spills and Fuel Losses at Sea It is expected that after application of the mitigation measures there will be little residual impact due to potential fuel and oil spills - Low Risk rating Interaction with Undersea Marine Services Currently, Myanmar has one international telecommunications connection via the SEA-ME-WE 3 cable that makes landfall at Pyapon, well away from the Project operational area. There is however a new undersea cable service in preparation called the SEA-ME-WE 5 connection, which will make landfall at Ngwe Saung. Refer to Figure 6-4. Accurate mapping for this is not available but it appears that it will pass through A-6, and likely that it may intersect with AD-5. The available schematics indicate that it tracks roughly south south-west from Ngwe Saung. It is expected that the cable will be commissioned in 2016 ( It is not known at this stage, whether the cable has already been installed, or is still being rolled out. The resultant impacts and mitigation will depend upon the current status of the deployment. If the cable has been installed, Woodside will liaise with its owners with respect to any detailed information on its location. It is not anticipated that seismic survey will have any impact on the cable, in particular since it is not yet in use. Gravity coring could possibly damage the cable, in the extremely unlikely event that a core location is coincident with its location. If the cable has not yet been installed, it is reasonable to assume that the installers may well be planning to use the same seasonal window of opportunity to roll out the Myanmar section of the cable, and that may require access through the survey area. Establishment of the safety zone for the survey has the potential to interfere with any such rollout, if it is planned to occur. As a result of Woodside s liaison with the constructors, if it is found that they intend to roll out cable in the same season as the survey, Woodside will liaise with them concerning appropriate timing and integration with the Woodside survey activities. Page 6-36

170 Figure 6-4: Schematic Map of the SeaMeWe-5 Submarine Cable Source Source: Cumulative Impacts Potential Cumulative Acoustic Impacts AD-5 was assigned to Woodside Energy (Myanmar) Pte Ltd (Woodside) and BG Group in the 2013 licensing round, as were a number of other petroleum blocks located in the north-eastern Bay of Bengal (Figure 6-5). It is likely that the operators of other blocks will be using the same seasonal window of opportunity to undertake marine seismic survey activity. This section assesses the potential for concurrent seismic surveys to contribute to cumulative noise impacts resulting in a significant impact to marine fauna and fishing activities. An overview of the adjacent blocks to AD-5 and the potential concurrent seismic activities are listed in Table 6-14 below. Marine seismic surveys by other oil and gas operators in the blocks of the Rakhine Basin further to the north are likely to be occurring at the same time as the Woodside marine seismic survey and seabed sampling in AD-5. These blocks (A-5, A-4, AD-02, AD-03, AD-09 and AD-10) are all greater than 80km away from AD-5. Given the extended separation distance of these surveys and assuming the noise attenuation of these surveys is similar to the levels represented in Section 6.3, the activities in these blocks are not likely to contribute cumulatively to the impacts identified from the marine seismic survey and seabed sampling in AD-5, other than a small increase in ambient underwater noise since surveys are acquired in deeper waters, where sound has the potential to travel longer distances. By definition, when noise from two different sources combine; the largest difference between the combined and individual noise levels will be 3 db, and this will only occur at locations where both surveys produce the same sound pressure levels. Additionally there is the potential noise from two surveys can combine and cancel each other out, reducing the peak noise levels in the water column. Page 6-37

171 Table 6-14: Overview of the Adjacent Blocks to AD-5 and Concurrent Seismic Activities Block Permit Holders Proposed Seismic Survey Approximate Timing Estimated Duration A-7 Woodside Myanmar Pte Ltd and MPRLs 3D MSS* November days*** 2D MSS** November days*** A-6 Woodside Myanmar Pte Ltd and MPRLs No n/a AD-5 Woodside Energy (Myanmar) Pte Ltd and BG Exploration and Production Myanmar Pte Ltd 3D MSS* November days*** 2D MSS** November days*** AD -01 Not awarded n/a n/a MD-01 Not awarded n/a n/a Note: *The AD-5 3D MSS vessel will likely be the same vessel acquiring the A-7 3D MSS ** The AD-5 2D MSS vessel will likely be the same vessel acquiring the A-7 2D MSS *** The estimated duration is the total duration of the AD-5 and A-7 surveys as they are expected to be acquired as one survey. It is expected that the same vessels acquiring within AD-5 (both 2D and 3D) will also acquire within A- 7, and therefore removing the potential for surveys to be acquired in both blocks concurrently. Therefore with respect to cumulative impacts these surveys should be considered one 2D MSS and one 3D MSS. It is acknowledged that timing of the proposed 3D MSS and 2D MSS will overlap for the duration of the 2D survey (estimated 35 days), however given the importance to acquire quality data, the surveys will be planned to avoid acquiring in close proximity, due to both the potential for noise interference to affect acquisition data and to maintain an adequate safety zone around the vessels and towed equipment. To avoid acoustic interference associated with acquiring con-current survey activities in close proximity, survey operators avoid con-current survey acquisition within a defined range dependent on the in-situ acoustic propagation characteristics of the survey area. Given the large area of the AD-5 permits and the likelihood that the surveys will extend into A-7, the vessels will be acquiring at distinctly different locations over an extensive geographic area (over 16,000km 2 ). Furthermore as towed streamer arrays are up to 12km long (2D) and up to 1.4km wide (3D) per vessel, survey vessels maintain appropriate separation distances for safety and operational reasons. In summary, the acquisition of these surveys will be spatially separated as a result of the following operational factors: to reduce data interference; and to reduce safety risks Marine Fauna Section 0 outlined that the zone of behavioral disturbance to cetaceans is limited to 6,100 m and 2,000 m from each source array in deep water and shallow water respectively, and 850 m for marine turtles. It is expected that sound pressure levels associated with both the 2D MSS and 3D MSS will Page 6-38

172 have attenuated well below these behavioral disturbance levels at the closest distance that both the surveys will be acquiring. There is expected to be temporally elevated ambient noise within the water column during the 35 days both surveys operating concurrently. Where ambient noise levels have increased due to anthropogenic noise there is the potential for changes to calling characteristics (frequency, amplitude), however it is expected that increased ambient noise (below known behavioral thresholds) will not have any significant effect on cetaceans during the AD-5 surveys. The implementation of mitigation measures outlined in Section 6.3.9, such as soft starts and pre start observations and delays, will reduce the potential impacts to marine fauna from noise during both surveys Fish and Marine Invertebrates The cumulative adverse effects on fish and marine invertebrates caused by exposure from two concurrent seismic surveys is expected to be negligible in both deep and shallow water. Temporal and spatial scale of behavioural response on marine fish and marine invertebrates would likely be short-term and limited to the localised area immediately surrounding each active airgun. Therefore the potential for impacts to fish and marine invertebrates and their populations, as a result of temporally con-current acquisition is considered negligible. The implementation of mitigation measures outlined in Chapter 6, such as soft starts and pre start observations and delays, will reduce the potential impacts to fish and marine invertebrates from noise during both surveys Commercial (Offshore) Fisheries The operation of multiple acoustic arrays in the northeastern Bay of Bengal is unlikely to change the normal spatial distribution of the larger pelagic species for anything more than short periods of time. The implementation of a safety zones for two vessels concurrently (for an estimated 35 days) will result is some fishing vessels having to temporary move out of their preferred fishing zones if the source vessels are in close proximity, however this is not expected to significantly constrain access to key fishing grounds due extent of the open ocean and the fact the surveys will only transit over the same acquisition line once over the entire survey period. Accordingly concurrent survey activity within AD-5 is not expected to result in any significant cumulative impacts to offshore fishing Artisanal (Coastal) Fisheries Impacts on coastal zone fisheries are expected to be localised and confined to the survey activities in the immediate vicinity, AD-5 activities are well offshore and there is not expected to be any cumulative contribution to impact in any of the identified fishing areas. Page 6-39

173 Figure 6-5: Myanmar Rakhine Basin Offshore Blocks Page 6-40

174 7 PUBLIC CONSULTATION AND INFORMATION DISCLOSURE 7.1 Introduction This Chapter provides an overview of public consultation and disclosure activities undertaken for the IEE for Woodside s proposed marine seismic surveys and associated activities in AD-5. It serves as a summary of a more detailed document - the Stakeholder Engagement Plan (Appendix D) - which was compiled to provide detail on consultation objectives, approaches and the identification of stakeholders. The plan and consultation process were designed to meet the Myanmar legal requirements for public consultation and disclosure (Chapter 2). This section seeks to provide a brief summary of key outcomes relevant to this IEE. Further recommendations regarding stakeholder consultation for the operational phase of Woodside s proposed survey activities in AD-5 are outlined in Section (Communication Plan and Grievance Mechanism) of this IEE. 7.2 Approach to Consultation The consultation effort for the exploration activities in Myanmar aimed to achieve a consistent, comprehensive, coordinated and culturally appropriate approach. Principles employed for consultation included: Stakeholder identification, analysis and mapping; Information disclosure; Consultation and participation; and Feedback system. Stakeholders were identified at three levels Union (Country/National level), Regional (Ayeyarwady Region) and Local (Township and Village-tract levels). Stakeholder groups included Government, civil society and institutions as well as potentially affected people in local communities. These groups are depicted in Figure 7-1. The consultation process was designed to align to the stages of an IEE, and involved three key phases: Consultation for the IEE (Table 7-1). Baseline Data Gathering: conducted from 28 th March 2015 to 24 th June Disclosure of the IEE (to be completed within ten days after submission of the report to MOECAF). Stakeholder consultation included both A-7 and AD-5 activities. Consultation at village tracts was conducted to support A-7 activities specifically given the proximity to the coast and potential for encounters with artisanal fishers. Detailed information regarding the consultation activities undertaken during each of these phases is appended (Appendix D). Page 7-1

175 Figure 7-1: Stakeholder Groups for the Project Union Level The SEP was submitted for review to the Myanma Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) Engagement with relevant Government Departments and Institutions (including MOECAF) Civil society oganisations and interested parties Regional Level Panel meeting / presentation with the Chief Minister of the Ayeyarwady Regional General Administrative Department, to seek approval for engaging at the Local "community" level Civil society oganisations and interested parties Local Level Township meeting with the Township Administrators of Pathein & Ngapudaw Consultation with representatives from potentially affected communities - village-tract representatives. 7.3 Outcomes of Consultation A summary of the consultation undertaken for the IEE is summarised below and outlined in Table 7-1. These issues, together with the findings of the baseline data gathering, have been considered when compiling the IEE. Chapter 8 outlines Woodside s response to stakeholder feedback, as well as identified impacts. More detailed feedback from stakeholders is appended (Appendix D) Summary of Feedback Some Union level Government departments highlighted the importance of following national regulations, verifying baseline data and community development needs. MOECAF provided details on the regulatory submission and approvals process. The Department of Fisheries (DoF) representatives highlighted that they do not want local fishers to be affected by the seismic surveys and that, if there were not any impacts, they would have no objections to the activities. They also advised that Woodside should gain the consent of local authorities before undertaking the surveys and to inform the DoF once the survey has been completed. Stakeholders from the Ayeyarwady Regional Government encouraged Woodside to continue to engage with the Regional Government and requested more details on project activities (e.g. vessel specifications). Environmental Conservation was highlighted as an important issue, and specifically water and air pollution issues were raised. It was also emphasised that Woodside should engage transparently and sensitively with local communities, particularly as there were existing sensitivities in local communities about previous development projects, resulting in local controversy due to nontransparent engagement. Page 7-2

176 Table 7-1: Summary of Consultation undertaken for the IEE (29/01/2015 to 24/06/2015) Stakeholder/s Reasons for Consulting Details of Consultation Summary of Feedback Environmental Conservation Department (ECD), MOECAF Environmental Conservation Department (ECD), MOECAF Department of Fisheries (DoF) Project disclosure Presentation of Stakeholder Engagement Plan (SEP) Project disclosure Request for information Project disclosure Request for information 30/01/2015, Nay Pyi Taw Importance of following national regulations 23/03/2015, Nay Pyi Taw 24/06/2015, Nay Pyi Taw Verification of baseline data is required Community development needs were highlighted DoF do not want local people to be affected by the seismic survey No objections if there are no impacts Gain consent of local authorities before undertaking the survey Inform the DoF when survey activities are finished, so fishers can resume activities Explanation of nearshore and offshore jurisdictions for fishing grounds General Administrative Department, Ayeyarwady Regional Government Project disclosure Attain comments and suggestions from Regional Government authorities 18/03/2015, Pathein Eight Government representatives, including the Chief Minister, of the Ayeyarwady Regional Government Woodside should engage with Regional authorities Environmental conservation is important, including management of water and air pollution Requests for more project details Disclosure to be done transparently and sensitively Township Administrators Pathein and Ngapudaw Project disclosure Gain permission to consult at the village-tract level Answer questions 23/03/2015, Pathein Permission to engage at village tract level provided Local community representatives from costal Village-tracts nearest to AD-5 Project disclosure Answer questions Provide stakeholders with project contacts 29/03/2015, Ywar Thit, 217 local community representatives 31/03/2015, Thae Phyu, 31 local community representatives 01/04/2015, Thit Yaung, 68 local community representatives Project understanding - requests for more details / specifications of project activities; lack of understanding about project activities; fear of activities Negative impacts to fishing - concerns over fleeing, dying, fish stocks; requests that fishing should not be prohibited, interfered with or impacted Page 7-3

177 Stakeholder/s Reasons for Consulting Details of Consultation Summary of Feedback 02/04/2015, Nan Thar Pu and Yae Kyaw, 32 local community representatives 02/04/2015, Kway Chaing, 40 local community representatives 03/04/2015,Pan Hmaw and Nat Hmaw, 26 local community representatives 03/04/2015, Kwin Bet, 31 local community representatives 03/04/2015, Sar Par Gyi, 37 local community representatives 05/04/2015, Zee Chaing, 11 local community representatives upon; concerns over impacts of future oil and gas developments on fishing livelihoods Negative impacts to the environment concerns over water pollution, waste management, pest management, impacts of sound waves generally and on seafloor / geology No impacts to fishing statements that impacts were not likely Requests for community development, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), local jobs Land encroachment concerns Requests for compensation if impacts do occur 05/04/2015, Hpaun Doe, 17 local community representatives Myanmar Fisheries Federation Myanmar Marine Fisheries Association Myanmar Fisheries Federation Ayeyarwady Division Myanmar Marine Sciences Academy Myanmar Centre for Responsible Business Fauna and Flora International Project disclosure Request for information Project disclosure Request for information Project disclosure Request for information fishing activities specific to the Ayeyarwady Region Project disclosure Request for information Follow-up meeting on progress of IEE and consultation activities Project disclosure Request for 29/01/2015, Yangon The importance of marine species conservation was highlighted 19/03/2015, Yangon 30/04/2015, Pathein 29/01/2015, Yangon 25/05/2015, Yangon 28/05/2015, Yangon Comments that there were no problems observed with previous seismic surveys Negative impacts to fisheries concerns that fish may move to different regions due to sound impacts; fishers may be impacted if fishing is restricted during peak season It was advised to take note of the naval base in the Ayeyarwady Delta Page 7-4

178 Stakeholder/s Reasons for Consulting Details of Consultation Summary of Feedback information Wildlife Conservation Society Project disclosure Request for information 28/05/2015, Yangon Istituto Oikos Project disclosure 29/05/2015, Yangon Request for information Representatives from coastal Village-tract communities raised a variety of issues. Lack of project understanding was identified as an issue, with some stakeholders requesting more information on details / specifications of project activities, expressing a lack of understanding about project activities or stating that they were afraid of project activities. Stakeholders also raised concerns about the potential negative impacts of the project on fishing activities and expressed concerns over fleeing and dying fish stocks. Requests were made for fishing not to be prohibited, interfered with or impacted upon. Some stakeholders also expressed concerns over the impacts of future oil and gas developments on fishing livelihoods and raised the issue of compensation, requesting that this be provided if any negative impacts were experienced. However, some stakeholders also stated that they did not think that negative impacts to fisheries would be likely. Requests were made for community development, corporate social responsibility (CSR) programmes and local job creation. Some stakeholders also raised issues relating to environmental issues, namely water pollution, waste management, pest management and the impacts of sound waves on the seafloor/ geology. Land encroachment concerns and the creation of a high tide due to survey activities were also highlighted. Some civil society groups highlighted the importance of marine species conservation. One group stated that they were concerned that some fish species may move to different regions due to sound impacts, and if this situation occurred during peak season then fishers would be impacted. However, some organisations also stated that no problems were observed during previous seismic surveys. As per the draft EIAP, this draft IEE will be made available for public comment for 60 days. The full report will be made available to the public in English and a non-technical summary will be made available in Burmese. The report will be disclosed to stakeholders by means of local media, at public meeting places and at Woodside s office in Yangon. Comments and suggestions received will be submitted to MOECAF for final decision. Page 7-5

179 Plate 7-1: Disclosure of Project Activities, Ywar Thit Village-tract (29/03/2015) Plate 7-2: Disclosure of Project Activities, Thae Phyu Village-tract (31/03/2015) Page 7-6

180 8 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT PLAN 8.1 Introduction This Chapter of the IEE details a Project-specific Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) for the proposed marine seismic surveys and associated activities in AD-5. It aims to provide an environmental and social management framework by outlining the compliance requirements, mitigation measures and monitoring programmes to be undertaken throughout the marine seismic surveys and associated activities. 8.2 Scope of the ESMP The ESMP covers the operations/execution phase implementation of: Environmental Management; Social Management; and Stakeholder Engagement. This ESMP document is the means by which the findings of the environmental assessment are implemented during the execution of the marine seismic surveys. The scope of the ESMP covers all of the marine seismic and other activities as described in Chapter 4 of this IEE, with the objective of demonstrating compliance with the relevant national legislation and Woodside Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) Policy (Figure 8-1) and Management System. The ESMP lists the obligations and responsibilities of each party involved in the project; stipulates methods and procedures that will be followed; and outlines environmental and social management actions that will be implemented. 8.3 Purpose and Objectives of ESMP This ESMP has been prepared based on the findings of this IEE (particularly Chapter 6) and describes management measures designed to mitigate potential environmental and social impacts of proposed marine seismic survey activities to a level that is considered to be as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP). Mitigation strategies have been considered according to a series of responses that address impacts (in descending order of preference) to avoid, prevent or reduce any potential impact on the identified sensitive receptors. The overarching purpose of this ESMP is to: integrate management and mitigation measures into the Project activities in order to reduce or mitigate any potential adverse impacts on natural and socio-economic environments; consider and address the concerns and interests of stakeholders who will potentially be engaged or impacted during execution of the marine seismic surveys; and establish systems and processes for delivery and implementation of the Project environmental and social requirements in order to meet statutory and compliance standards. Page 8-1

181 The objectives of the ESMP are to: demonstrate continuing compliance with the relevant Myanmar environmental legislation, Woodside HSE Policy and Management System and good international industry practices; describe the mechanism for implementing identified control, monitoring and management measures to mitigate potentially adverse impacts; provide a framework for mitigating impacts that may be unforeseen or unidentified until seismic acquisition and associated activities are underway; provide assurance to regulators and stakeholders that their requirements with respect to environmental and social performance will be met; undertake monitoring to provide assurance that the control and management measures are being implemented; and combine all of the above in a systematic framework of monitoring, reporting and management that will measure the successful implementation of the project in accordance with Woodside s standards for social and environmental performance, and respond as needed to maintain those objectives. 8.4 Woodside Management System The Woodside Management System (WMS) consists of mandatory policies, standards, processes, guidelines, procedures, work instructions and manuals covering key operations. The management system is the means by which environmental and social (amongst other) performance requirements are implemented. Woodside and its appointed geophysical contractors for the 2D and 3D MSS shall utilize this ESMP to ensure that environmental and social impacts and risks are managed to acceptable levels, through the application of the WMS and any additional mitigation measures, should the WMS not already address them. The ENVID process for the proposed survey activities is documented in Chapter 6. The results indicated that all potential impacts are assessed to be a low risk if the proposed mitigation measures are effectively implemented. The marine seismic surveys and associated activities shall be outsourced to specialist contractors and they shall be required to align their operations and management systems with those of Woodside by means of bridging arrangements a standard practice in the offshore oil and gas industry. The following Woodside policies shall guide all the marine seismic acquisition activities of the Contractor and are of relevance to the proposed work programme: Health Safety and Environment Policy (Appendix B). Sustainable Communities Policy (Appendix B). These policies are supported by specific procedures and guidelines that set the expectations and performance requirements for our activities. Page 8-2

182 8.5 Legislation and Guidelines This IEE has referenced national and international legislation and guidelines that are relevant to the proposed Project (see Chapter 2). Woodside will conduct the Project in conformance in the first instance to the laws of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, then to its HSE policy (Appendix B) and the WMS as they apply to the Project. Woodside will also require its key project management staff and all its assigned contractors are aware of these regulatory requirements and guidelines prior to the commencement of their input to the Project. The applicable Myanmar Laws and Regulations are discussed in detail in Chapter 2 of this IEE. 8.6 Environmental Management Plan The Environmental Management Plan (EMP) for the proposed seismic surveys in AD-5 is documented in Table 8-1. For each of the source activities (termed environmental aspects in ISO14001 terminology) the associated effects are described and linked with their potential environmental impacts. For each potential impact there are specific impact mitigation measures, and responsibility for implementing the mitigation measures is assigned to personnel within Woodside and the relevant geophysical contractor. In order to enable verification of implementation of the impact mitigation measures, relevant documented records are listed in the last column. 8.7 Social Management Plan The objective of the Social Management Plan (SMP) is to establish management and monitoring measures to avoid or reduce potential socio-economic impacts generated by the marine seismic survey. The SMP applies to all components of Woodside s proposed 2D and 3D offshore seismic acquisition, gravity and magnetic data acquisition, and seabed sampling programmes. The following management actions apply in protecting local community livelihoods and safety, while maintaining appropriate communication with local communities Livelihoods Protection The EMP will make provision to reduce the impact on local marine fauna, and by consequence, impacts on local fisheries-based livelihoods. However, encounters with local artisanal fishermen are not anticipated, given the distance of AD-5 from the coastline. The following mitigation measures will be adopted: Suitable awareness and notification is provided to communities consistent with the Community Safety and Security provisions included in Section The Community Grievance Mechanism, established under this ESMP provides a procedure for dealing with any potential claims that may arise even after all efforts to mitigate any impacts have been made. All claims will be investigated by Woodside. Page 8-3

183 Table 8-1: Environmental Management Plan Aspect Management Objectives/ Commitments Mitigation Strategies/ Measures Frequency/ Timing Planned (Routine) Activities Timely advice to local fishermen concerning the survey activities. Notifications to all known relevant fishery stakeholders including the Department of Fisheries and the various fishing associations. Prior to and during survey Issuance of Notice to Mariners (NTM). Maintenance of a Safety Zone around project vessel and all towed equipment. Physical presence of project vessels Minimise potential disruption to commercial and artisanal fishing and to local and international shipping activities Establishment of a Communications Protocol. Use of chase vessel(s) to liaise with approaching vessels and maintain the Safety Zone (MSS only). Crew to include at least one bilingual English/Burmese speaking member. Implementation of a Community Grievance Mechanism to deal with any claims / complaints. Adherence to the international convention concerning the interaction of vessels at sea (COLREGS). Maximizing efficiency of seismic surveys to reduce operation times, where possible. Standard maritime safety procedures will be followed including the appropriate navigational lighting and maintenance of radio contact with nearby vessel. Appropriate maintenance of vessels and associated equipment. Maximizing efficiency of seismic surveys to reduce operation times, where possible. Prior to and during survey Routine noise emissions from acoustic source Minimise disruption to marine fauna, particularly mammals, fishes and turtles Pre-start search (30mins shallow water, 60mins deep water) (MSS only). Marine Mammal Observer present (MSS only). All sightings recorded (MSS only). Soft start (20mins) (MSS only). Prestart delay zones (500m of source) (MSS only). Routine atmospheric emissions Minimise impacts on air quality in operational area Comply with MARPOL73/78 Annex VI requirements: o o o Adequate maintenance of mechanical/motor systems (vessel operator to maintain maintenance and inspection log). Vessel to hold an International Air Pollution Prevention (IAPP) Certificate as appropriate to class. Use of low sulphur fuel (sulphur content not to exceed 3.5% m/m) when it is available. Prior to and during survey o Practice segregation of waste - only appropriate non-hazardous wastes to be disposed in incinerator (wastes which cannot be safely incinerated are to be disposed of at shore base). Routine discharges Minimise reduction of water quality in vicinity of project vessels from discharge of sewage, grey water, putrescible and other wastes Comply with MARPOL requirements for waste management, e.g. sewage treatment unit, oil/water separator, macerator for biodegradable waste. Vessel to obtain International Sewage Pollution Prevention (ISPP) certificate and International Oil Pollution Prevention (IOPP) certificate, as appropriate to vessel class. The vessel will have a waste management plan providing procedure for minimizing, collecting, storing, processing and disposing of garbage waste. Prior to and during survey Maintain waste log including waste type, quantity and disposal method. Routine light generation Minimise light disturbance to marine fauna Lighting will be minimised to sources required for navigational and operational safety reasons. On-board operational lighting will be located and oriented in such a way to direct working light where it is needed, and minimise light spill to the marine environment. Prior to and during survey Page 8-4

184 Aspect Management Objectives/ Commitments Mitigation Strategies/ Measures Frequency/ Timing Seabed sampling No damage to undersea utilities, for example submarine cables or pipelines Confirm locations of subsea infrastructure prior to any seabed sampling. Prior to and during survey Unplanned Activities (Accidents/ Incidents) Surveys will take place in the period of calmest weather and seas in the Project operational area. Seismic vessels will be relatively slow moving approximately 4.5 knots. Prior to and during survey Notice to Mariners will be issued with the Myanmar ports authority to advise as many vessels as possible of the survey activities and timing. Survey vessels and chase boats with utilise radar and visual observation to track vessels in the area and where necessary advise of the activity by radio or hailed. Refuelling to commence during daylight and when sea conditions are appropriate as determined by the vessel master. Unplanned discharges to the marine environment Avoid fuel and oil spills Minimise the potential impacts of fuel and oil spills on the marine environment Job hazard analysis (or equivalent) is undertaken in place and reviewed before each fuel transfer. Transfer hoses are fitted with dry-break couplings (or similar and checked for integrity). Spill response kits are maintained and located in close proximity to hydrocarbon bunkering areas to use to contain and recover deck spills; Bunkering operations will be manned with constant visual monitoring of gauges, hoses and fittings and sea surface. Radio communications will be maintained between seismic and support vessel. In the event of any incidents which resulted in the release of hydrocarbon fuels to the marine environment, vessel Masters will enact a Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plans (SOPEP). Any significant fuel losses to the marine environment will be immediately reported to the relevant third-party authorities. Crew induction to include spill prevention, reporting and use of spill response equipment. Marine Seismic Survey only. Apply the procedures for vessel/marine fauna interactions as per IAGC/JNCC guidelines, these measures including: o appropriate searches prior to start-up; soft start procedures; use of the Marine Mammal Observer (MMO). Prior to and during survey Minimise likelihood of interactions with marine fauna o o Use of tail buoys designed to minimise turtle interaction (MSS only). Any vessel or towed equipment interactions with marine fauna recorded and reported. o Where possible, reduction in vessel speed if mammals sighted within 500m. Unplanned events associated with physical presence of project vessels Minimise risk of bringing exotic and pest marine species into Bay of Bengal via ballast water exchange o o Where possible, survey vessels will not approach closer than 100m for a cetacean (unless animals bow riding). Training of personnel. All Woodside-contracted vessels will comply with IMO Ballast Water requirements. Vessels which have obtained their ballast water from an area outside of Bay of Bengal / Andaman Sea are not to discharge it within 50 nautical miles from land, or in water depths less than 200m. Vessels to maintain record of ballast water uptake and discharge locations. Prior to and during survey Note that freshwater ballast can be discharged. Minimise risk of bringing exotic and pest marine species into coastal waters via biofouling of hull and other niches Woodside s invasive marine species risk assessment process will be applied. Prior to and during survey Page 8-5

185 8.7.2 Community Safety and Security Woodside will act to safeguard the community safety during the marine seismic survey programme. This will require specific attention to potential safety risks related to interaction with the survey vessels and potential disruption of artisanal fishing vessels. The safety of the public (considered to be limited to local artisanal fishers) will be managed in a manner that is consistent with standard domestic and international maritime safety/navigation procedures. Additional provisions include: Engagement with the appropriate authorities and stakeholders prior to the commencement of the surveys. Advice to fishing communities of the timing of surveys and the operation of the Safety Zone (this will be coordinated with the Notice to Mariners, although it will be necessary to consider the appropriate form and content of communication in the artisanal fishing villages) Establishing a Safety Zone around the seismic vessel in which only authorised vessels are permitted to enter and operate. This safety zone will be communicated using the following means: i. prior to the commencement of acquisition of the surveys, standby/ support vessels to undertake reconnaissance surveillance in AD-5 to provide notice of upcoming survey activity, and the Safety Zone requirements that should be followed to minimise interference to respective activities; ii. the seismic vessel and chase/support vessels, when on location, will undertake continuous surveillance of marine traffic in the areas of survey activity and, if required, will intercept any vessels attempting to transit through the area of activity; and Management of the Safety Zone will be consistent with good safety practices. All safety procedures should assume that local artisanal fisherman, if encountered, have no access to communication or navigation equipment, nor have received formal prior notice of the seismic surveys. Communications should be verified both visually and verbally with local fisheries vessels where encountered. Encounters with artisanal fishermen are not anticipated, given the distance of AD-5 from the coastline. Emergency Response Plans will be prepared by relevant contractor to respond to potential incidents with local visiting vessels including: i. collisions or near-collisions; ii. iii. iv. fouling or damage of survey and fishing equipment; search and rescue protocols (including for members of the public); and communication protocols in cases of emergencies. An incidents register will be maintained by the seismic vessel(s). The register will include the following: i. near-misses; and ii. actual incidents (including a detailed investigation into the incident). Page 8-6

186 8.7.3 Stakeholder Engagement and Communications Plan The Stakeholder Engagement and Communications Plan details plans for the continued engagement and notification of the proposed activities with local coastal communities, fishers and key stakeholders prior to, during and after the surveys are completed. The majority of actions identified are more relevant for Woodside s activities in A-7 given its proximity to the coast, and potential encounters with artisanal fishermen. However, as these surveys are to be acquired in parallel they have been included for completeness. The Plan contains actions and protocols that satisfy management requirements of both the SMP and ongoing stakeholder engagement requirements. The Plan is outlined in Table 8-2. As part of this Plan, a Community Grievance Mechanism will be established and communicated - refer to Section for details Community Grievance Mechanism Procedure Woodside s Community Grievance Mechanism Procedure provides a framework for community stakeholders to raise questions or concerns with Woodside and have them addressed in a prompt and respectful manner. Woodside aims to address all complaints from community stakeholders that it receives. A Grievance Mechanism is required for the Project s operations phase, and a draft of this Procedure is illustrated in Figure 8.1, the Procedure will be finalised as part of the pre-acquisition consultation activities. A preliminary feedback system was established for the IEE consultation. Through this system, stakeholders were able to phone, or post mail to Woodside s Country Manager in Yangon. At the time of publication of this IEE, no complaints or grievances had been received by Woodside. Page 8-7

187 Table 8-2: Stakeholder Engagement and Communications Plan for the Project Actions Schedule Stakeholders Consultation Responsibility Notification of Seismic Surveys Notification of seismic survey activities and disclosure of the Community Grievance Mechanism will be provided to stakeholders, including: Written and face-to-face notification to relevant Regional, Township and Village-tract officials/ authorities Myanmar Fisheries Federation - Ayeyarwady Region Written notice to mariners/fishers Notifications for each stakeholder group completed prior to the survey commencing Regional, Township and Village-tract officials/ authorities Myanmar Fisheries Federation Ayeyarwady Region Mariners/ Fishers Local coastal communities Face-to-face meetings (monthly Governance meetings for officials) Fishing Liaison Officer (multilingual) will handle day-to-day interaction with stakeholders Written correspondence Village-level meetings Woodside Direct face-to-face engagement with relevant coastal communities Posters and flyers (for local communities) Provision of project fact-sheets and posters and flyers in Burmese located at coastal villages (at administration offices and fish launch sites). The posters will contain the following information: (a). survey acquisition details Posters and fact-sheets distributed to communities at least two weeks prior to the seismic survey commencing Potentially affected communities Written media Woodside (b). survey Safety Zone (c). contact details Consultation during Seismic Surveys Meet with Myanmar Fisheries Federation Ayeyarwady Region during the seismic surveys to provide updates, answer any questions and address At least once during the survey period Myanmar Fisheries Federation Meeting Woodside Page 8-8

188 Actions Schedule Stakeholders Consultation Responsibility any grievances Ayeyarwady Region Attend Township Meetings or equivalent during the seismic survey periods to provide updates, answer any questions and address any grievances Monthly Township meeting at least one Township Administrators Village-tract leaders Formal meeting Woodside IEE Disclosure Undertake public consultation for the IEE report as per the draft IEE guidelines which includes: Disclose the IEE report to stakeholders Invite comments and suggestions Arrange public consultation meetings at the local level Commence process no later than 10 days after the IEE report is submitted to MOECAF. The period public consultation and final advice from MOECAF is 60 days General public Potentially affected communities Civil society Relevant Government organisations Institutions Written information (IEE report) Public meetings Woodside Follow-up Consultation from IEE studies Distribute project/activity specific fact sheets to stakeholders Within one month of the completion of the public consultation phase of the IEE studies. All stakeholders consulted during IEE studies phase Written information (fact sheet) E Guard Conduct an end of survey environmental report/ presentation to MOECAF. This would include information such as any fauna sightings, sharing relevant environmental information and any incidents that may have occurred during the survey On completion of the survey MOECAF Formal presentation Woodside Woodside Country Manager Page 8-9

189 Actions Schedule Stakeholders Consultation Responsibility Community Grievance Mechanism Telephone Implement the Community Grievance Mechanism as per the indicative procedures outlined in Figure 8-2 Continuously over the life of the project All Written correspondence Traditional Authority (e.g. Village Administrator) Woodside Woodside Country Manager Direct contact through meetings Disclose the Grievance Mechanism to Village-tract communities At least two weeks before each seismic survey commences At least once during the seismic survey periods Using disclosure methods described in Section All Meetings Local radio Website Woodside Record Keeping Develop and maintain a Community Grievance Register, preferably integrated with Woodside s Community Grievance Register, which captures stakeholder details, issues and grievances Ongoing to be updated as needed All Internal process Woodside Page 8-10

190 Figure 8-1: Woodside s Grievance Mechanism in Myanmar Telephone Community Liaison Officer (CLO) Traditional Authority Written Mail 1. Received by CLO Registration of grievance in Myanmar s Community Grievance Register Complainant Owner: 2. Assess and Assign 3. Acknowledge inform complainant CLO Third Party Senior Management Internal Department e.g. HSE, Geophysics etc. 4. Investigate Find a solution Establish timeframes Assign Resources Record on Grievance Register Accepted 5. Respond Rejected Findings Corrective actions Timeframes Responsible parties Monitoring Feedback from complainant Agreed Actions implemented 6a. Resolve 6b. Review Myanmar Country Manager & Communities Manager review 7. Close-out Record in Grievance Register DRAFT PROCEDURE INDICATIVE ONLY Page 8-11

191 8.8 Roles and Responsibilities Woodside s Role Woodside is responsible for ensuring that the seismic acquisition operations are carried out in accordance with Woodside HSE and Communities Policies, the requirements of the Woodside Management System and this ESMP. Relevant details regarding the proposed seismic surveys will be submitted to the regulatory authorities in Myanmar (MOECAF, Department of Fisheries, Department of Marine Administration [DMA], in advance of the operations. Procurement of contract services to undertake the various aspects of the Project will require prospective contractors to meet the standards and requirements outlined in this ESMP, and where necessary provide certification and proof of compliance. Contractors will be required to demonstrate that all personnel are suitably trained and qualified to undertake the roles that they will assume in the implementation of the Project. Woodside will reserve the right to undertake planned and ad hoc inspections and review of appropriate certification as part of its procurement process. As part of their operating and HSE procedures, Woodside and its contractors will undertake pre-mobilisation and periodic inspections to evaluate the implementation of the ESMP. Table 8-3: Responsibilities of Key Roles Job Title Environmental and Social Responsibilities Seismic Survey Activities Office-based Personnel Woodside Project Manager seismic operations are undertaken as per this ESMP. provides sufficient resources to implement the management measures. vessel personnel are given an environmental induction at the start of the survey. reporting and management of environmental incidents. corrective actions raised from environmental inspections or incidents are tracked and closed out. changes to the survey are communicated to the Woodside Environmental Adviser. Woodside Corporate Adviser Affairs prepare and implement the Stakeholder Engagement Plan. report on stakeholder consultation. ongoing liaison as required. Woodside Environmental Adviser prepare environmental component of relevant Induction package. assist with the review, investigation and reporting of environmental incidents. ensure environmental monitoring and inspections/audits are undertaken. liaise with relevant regulatory authorities as required. assist in preparation of external reports. monitor and close out corrective actions identified during environmental. monitoring or audits. provide advice to the Party Chief and Woodside Project Manager and copies of this ESMP. Page 8-12

192 Job Title Environmental and Social Responsibilities Woodside Assurance Marine review current vessel audit or conduct relevant audit and inspections to confirm vessels are in compliance with relevant Marine Orders navigation and emergency response requirements. Vessel Operations Manager Offshore Personnel Vessel Master Party Chief Client Site Representative prepare and implement Project HSE Plan. leadership by personal example and visible commitment to instil excellent HSE behaviour and culture aboard. establishing an HSE plan for the vessel. ensuring major incidents are thoroughly investigated, root cause analyses performed, corrective actions completed, logged and closed out. ensure the vessel management system and procedures are implemented. ensure personnel commencing work on the vessel receive an environmental induction. participate in audits as required. ensure SOPEP drills are conducted as per the vessel s schedule. ensure any environmental incidents or breaches of this ESMP, are reported immediately to the Party Chief and Woodside Project Manager. implement the vessel management system and procedures. ensure the safe execution of all operations of the vessel. adhere to requirements of the Project HSE Plan. ensure personnel commencing work on the vessel receive an environmental/social induction that meets the requirements specified in this ESMP. ensure personnel are competent to undertake the work they have been assigned. conduct emergency drills as per the vessel s schedule. ensure the vessel Emergency Response Team has been given sufficient training to implement the Site Emergency Response Plan (SERP). report any environmental/social incidents or breaches of monitoring requirements outlined in this ESMP, immediately to the Client Site Representative. understand and manage environmental aspects of the seismic operations. provide copies of documents, records, reports and certifications (as requested by Woodside) in a timely manner to assist in compliance reporting. any environmental incidents or breaches of environmental performance outcomes, performance standards or measurement criteria outlined in this ESMP, are reported immediately to the Woodside Site Representative. ensure project personnel adhere to the requirements of this ESMP. ensure monitor and close out corrective actions identified during environmental monitoring or audits. ensure any environmental incidents or breaches of environmental performance outcomes, performance outlined in this ESMP, are reported immediately to the Woodside Project Manager. ensure that periodic environmental inspections are completed. Page 8-13

193 Job Title Environmental and Social Responsibilities Marine Mammal Observer (MMO) review Contractors procedures, input into Toolbox talks and JSA s. provide day-to-day environment and social support for activities in consultation with the Woodside Project Manager. implement interaction procedures in accordance with IAGC/JNCC guidelines and this ESMP. provide training through induction/briefing to all vessel crew likely to assist with marine fauna observations. record observations of marine fauna and monitor and report on compliance with acoustic operating requirements. assist Woodside Project Manager with the review, investigation and reporting of environmental incidents. 8.9 Environmental Training The Woodside HSE Manager is responsible for identifying, arranging evaluating and development of comprehensive environmental training programme for effective implementation of the ESMP. The Client Site Representative will determine the training requirements for the contractors necessary for understanding and effective implementation of the ESMP. The Client Site Representative and contractor s representatives will then disseminate the necessary training to all project personnel Monitoring, Record Keeping and Reporting A summary of monitoring and record keeping during the MSS in AD-5 is provided in Table 8-4. Table 8-4: Monitoring and Record-Keeping Activity Monitoring Record Keeping Marine Fauna Observations Cetacean, whale shark and turtle sightings Sighting report forms Waste Management Quantities of waste discharged Vessel waste log Invasive Marine Species Bunkering Fishery interaction Management of ballast water Monitoring during bunkering in accordance with ESMP and other relevant procedures Implementation of community grievance mechanism Vessel ballast and bilge logs Woodside Invasive marine species risk assessment Records of any bunkering events Records of grievance through the community grievance mechanism Training Details of vessel crew inductions Induction record sheet Incident reporting Details of any environment or social incidents Incident report forms Compliance reporting Compliance with ESMP Inspection and audit check sheets End of survey environment report Page 8-14

194 In addition, monitoring will be undertaken consistent with applicable laws and standards, the conditions attached to the Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC), as well as the provisions made in this ESMP ESMP Contractor Management and Monitoring Where Woodside intends to use contractor(s) to undertaken any portion or the entirety of the seismic operations, the provisions made in this ESMP will form part of the responsibilities of the contractor(s). These responsibilities will be defined at the procurement stage and will be included in the relevant contracts. Monitoring will be undertaken consistent with applicable laws and standards, the conditions attached to the Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC), as well as the provisions made in this ESMP Reporting Incident Reporting Incident reports will be in writing, and will be transmitted to the relevant persons/organisations by and fax Monthly Reports During the AD-5 seismic surveys, monthly reports will be submitted to the Director General (DG) of MOECAF and the Managing Director (MD) of MOGE. These reports will contain: further information concerning any reportable incidents; a summary of marine fauna (cetaceans, turtles, whale sharks) sightings; and any other relevant information on environmental performance during acquisition operations MMO Final Report A record of marine fauna interaction procedures employed during operations will be maintained. The MMO Final Report on the conduct of the surveys, and any marine fauna sightings/interactions (including any marine fauna instigated shut downs of the acoustic source) will be provided to MOECAF and MOGE within two months of the completion of the survey. The report will contain: location, date and start-up time of the survey; name, qualifications and experience of any MMOs involved in the survey; location, times and reasons when observations were hampered by poor visibility or high winds; location and time any start-up delays, power downs or stop work procedures instigated as a result of marine fauna sightings; location, time and distance of any cetacean, turtle and whale shark sightings; and date and time of completion of the survey. The MMO Final Report will be submitted to the DG of MOECAF and the MD of MOGE, and to other stakeholders if required. Page 8-15

195 8.12 Auditing and Review Environmental performance auditing will be undertaken to confirm that the standards to achieve environmental and social performance are being implemented and identify opportunities for continuous improvement and potential non-conformances. Internal audits and reviews, combined with the ongoing monitoring described in Table 8-1, will be used to assess and report on environmental and social performance. Woodside may also periodically select activities that will be subject to an environmental audit as per Woodside s internal auditing through Woodside s WMS and/or assurances processes. Non-conformances identified and reported will be notified and investigated in accordance with the Woodside event reporting and operating process. Incidents will be reported using an Incident and Hazard Report Form, which includes details of the event, immediate action taken to control the situation, and corrective actions to prevent reoccurrence. Environmental and social performance of the seismic surveys in AD-5 shall be reviewed in a number of ways. These reviews are undertaken to: verify that environmental/ social management measures to achieve management objectives are being implemented, reviewed and where necessary amended; identify potential non-conformances and opportunities for continuous improvement; and demonstrate that all environmental/ social management objectives have been met before completing the activity. The following arrangements will be established to review environmental/social performance of the activity: an inspection(s) of the vessels will be carried out before or during the surveys to verify that procedures and equipment are in place to enable compliance with this ESMP and with the Project HSE Plan; and copies of this ESMP document and Project HSE Plan will be distributed aboard the vessels, and implementation of the environmental/ social management measures will be monitored on a regular basis by the Client Site Representative Emergency Response A Project-specific Emergency Response Plan (ERP) is to be developed by the survey contractor and submitted to Woodside for review and approval prior to commencement of the surveys. The ERP is to address the following issues: Individual roles and responsibilities in the case of an emergency event. Reporting protocols in order for emergency events to be reported to local authorities along with contact details of relevant authorities in Myanmar (e.g. MOGE, MOECAF, and DMA). Floor plan of the vessel showing location of specialist emergency response tools e.g. spill management kits and fire extinguishers. Training and induction protocols including a register of crew members who have been given situation-specific emergency training e.g. fire wardens or first aid officers. Any other information generally required by international standards such as the International Maritime Organization (IMO) for operations of a similar type, scale and duration. Page 8-16

196 In the event of an emergency of any type, the Vessel Master will assume overall onsite command and act as the Emergency Response Coordinator (ERC). All persons aboard the vessels will be required to act under the ERC s directions. The vessels will maintain communications with the Woodside Project Manager and/or other emergency services in the event of an emergency. The seismic vessel and support vessel will have on-board equipment for responding to emergencies including but not limited to medical and fire-fighting equipment. Page 8-17

197 References

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210 Appendices Appendices

211 APPENDIX A ADVERTISEMENTS OF NATIONAL NOTIFICATION OF THE IEE STUDIES

212

213 APPENDIX B WOODSIDE HSE AND SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES POLICIES

214

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216 APPENDIX C IMPACTS OF SEISMIC SURVEY NOISE ON MARINE FAUNA

217 Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Woodside Myanmar, Block AD-5 Submitted to: Kevin Dobson PT AECOM Indonesia Authors: Craig McPherson David Hannay 20 July 2015 P Document Version 1.0 JASCO Applied Sciences (Australia) Pty Ltd. Unit 4, Steel Street Capalaba, Queensland, 4157 Tel: Mob:

218 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Suggested citation: McPherson, C.R and D. Hannay Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna,Woodside Myanmar, Block AD-5. JASCO Document 01035, Version 1.0. Technical report by JASCO Applied Sciences for PT AECOM Indonesia. i Version 1.0

219 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Contents 1. BASICS OF ACOUSTICS AND PROPAGATION Sound Characteristics Sound Metrics Types of Sound Propagation of Sound 7 2. GENERAL IMPACTS OF SOUND ON MARINE SPECIES Impacts on Marine Mammals Acoustic Masking Behavioural Disturbance Temporary and Permanent Hearing Loss Reduction of Prey Availability Fishes Effects on Behaviour Masking Effects on Hearing Death and Injury Sea Turtles Invertebrates ACOUSTIC THRESHOLDS Marine Mammals Marine Mammal Frequency Weighting Functions Behavioural Exposure Criteria Selection Fish, Sea Turtles, Plankton, Eggs and Larvae Sea Turtle Exposure Criteria PREDICTED SOUND PROPAGATION FROM THE MSS IN BLOCK A Deep Water Thresholds Cetaceans Deep Water Thresholds Fish, Sea Turtles, Eggs and Larvae Shallow Water Thresholds Cetaceans Shallow Water Thresholds Fish, Sea Turtles, Eggs and Larvae Projected Impacts Marine Mammals Fish Turtles Plankton, Eggs, and Larvae Marine Invertebrates Indirect Impacts 24 GLOSSARY 26 LITERATURE CITED 30 2 Version 1.0

220 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Figures Figure 1. Sound level metrics. 5 Tables Table 1. Known sound sensitivities of selected marine mammals (Wyatt 2008). 9 Table 2. Marine Mammal Functional Hearing Groups, Auditory Bandwidth (estimated lower to upper frequency hearing cut-off), and Genera Represented in Each Group (Modified from Southall et al. 2007). 15 Table 3. Criteria for seismic airguns, adapted from Popper et al. (2014). 18 Table 4. Horizontal source level specifications ( Hz) for the seismic airgun array 20 Table 5. Horizontal distances (in m) from the source to injury and behavioural thresholds, 2000 m water depth. 21 Table 6. Per-pulse SELs and peak SPLs for fish, sea turtles, fish eggs, and fish larvae, 2000 m water depth 21 Table 7. Behavioural response for sea turtles, 2000 m water depth 22 Table 8. Horizontal distances (in m) from the source to injury and behavioural thresholds, 200 m water depth. 22 Table 9. Per-pulse SELs and peak SPLs for fish, sea turtles, fish eggs, and fish larvae, 200 m water depth 22 Table 10. Behavioural response for sea turtles, 200 m water depth 23 3 Version 1.0

221 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna 1. Basics of Acoustics and Propagation 1.1. Sound Characteristics Sound is a physical phenomenon of minute vibrations that travel through a supporting medium, such as air or water. When a source vibrates, its surface moves forward into the medium and compresses the surrounding molecules, thereby creating a region of higher pressure. As the surface of the vibrating object moves back toward and past its original position, the molecules of the surrounding medium expand back and a region of lower pressure results. These cycles are called compressions and rarefactions, respectively. The speed at which these compressions and rarefactions travel away from the source depends on the compressibility and density of the media and is called the speed of sound. The successive compressions and rarefactions result in sound waves. Sound waves travel much faster in water than in air. Sound is generally described in terms of frequency (or pitch), intensity, and temporal properties (short or long in duration). The following text provides a general description of these terms. For more details, there are several publications and books that provide detailed overviews of underwater acoustics, such as Richardson et al. (1995) and Au and Hastings (2008). Frequency is a measure of how many times each second the crest of a sound pressure wave passes a fixed point; it is measured in Hertz (Hz). For example, when a drummer beats a drum, the skin of the drum vibrates a number of times per second. A particular tone that makes the drum skin vibrate 100 times per second generates a sound pressure wave at 100 Hz, and this vibration is perceived as a tonal pitch of 100 Hz. Sound frequencies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz are within the range of sensitivity of the best human ear. Some mysticetes (baleen whales) produce and likely hear sounds below 20 Hz, while odontocetes (toothed whales) produce and hear sounds at frequencies much higher than 20,000 Hz (also reported as 20 kilohertz [khz]). Acoustic intensity is defined as the acoustical power per unit area. The intensity, power, and energy of a sound wave are proportional to the average of the squared pressure. Measurement instruments and most receivers (humans, animals) sense changes in pressure, which is measured in Pascals (Pa). Pressure changes due to sound waves can be measured in Pa but they are more commonly expressed in decibels (db). The decibel is a logarithmic scale that is based on the ratio of the sound pressure relative to a standard reference pressure p ref. Different standard reference pressures are used for airborne sounds and underwater sounds. The airborne standard pressure reference is p ref (air) = 20 micropascals (µpa), where 1 µpa = Pa. The underwater standard reference pressure is p ref (water) = 1 µpa. The formula used to convert a pressure p measured in µpa to sound pressure level P measured in db is P = 20 log 10 [p/p ref ]. Because of the logarithmic nature of the decibel, sound levels cannot be added or subtracted directly. If a sound s pressure is doubled, its sound level increases by 6 db, regardless of the initial sound level. This can be illustrated by considering a sound having pressure p 1 ; it has decibel level P 1 = 20 log[p 1 /p ref ]. Now consider a sound with twice the pressure: p 2 = 2p 1. It has decibel level P 2 = 20 log[p 2 /p ref ] = 20 log[2p 1 /p ref ] = P db Sound Metrics Three metrics are commonly used for the evaluation of underwater sound impacts: peak pressure, root-mean-square (rms) or sound pressure level, and sound exposure level (SEL). Figure 1 shows a representation of a sinusoidal (single-frequency) pressure wave to help illustrate the various metrics. The amplitude of the pressure is shown on the vertical axis, and time is shown on the horizontal axis. The pressure of the wave is shown to fluctuate around the neutral point. The peak sound pressure is the absolute value of the maximum variation from the neutral position; therefore, it can result from either compression or a rarefaction. The peak-to-peak sound pressure is the difference between the maximum and minimum pressures. The average amplitude is the average of absolute value of pressure over the period of interest. The rms amplitude is a type of average that is determined by squaring all of the amplitudes over the period of interest, determining the mean of the squared values, and then taking the square root of this mean. The rms amplitude of an impulsive signal will vary significantly depending on the length of the period of interest Discovery of Sound in the Sea (DOSITS 2015). SEL is a metric that is related to the sound energy per area received over time, though it does 4 Version 1.0

222 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna not have energy units; it is proportional to the square of the sound pressure and the time over which a sound is received. Figure 1. Sound level metrics. The zero-to-peak SPL, or peak SPL (db re 1 µpa), is the maximum instantaneous sound pressure level in a stated frequency band attained by an acoustic pressure signal, p(t): Peak SPL = 10log 10 é max ê ê p ë 2 ( p ( t) ) The peak SPL metric is commonly quoted for impulsive sounds, but it does not account for the duration or bandwidth of the noise. At high intensities, the peak SPL can be a valid criterion for assessing whether a sound is potentially injurious; however, because the peak SPL does not account for the duration of a noise event, it is a poor indicator of perceived loudness. The root-mean-square (rms) SPL (db re 1 µpa) is the rms pressure level in a stated frequency band over a time window (T, s) containing the acoustic event: 2 0 æ 1 ö 2 2 rms SPL = 10log ç 10 ò p ( t) dt p (2) 0 è T T ø The rms SPL is a measure of the average pressure or of the effective pressure over the duration of an acoustic event, such as the emission of one acoustic pulse. Because the window length, T, is the divisor, events more spread out in time have a lower rms SPL for the same total acoustic energy density. In studies of impulsive noise, T is often defined as the 90% energy pulse duration (T 90 ): the interval over which the pulse energy curve rises from 5% to 95% of the total energy. The SPL computed over this T 90 interval is commonly called the 90% rms SPL (db re 1 µpa): æ ö 90% rms SPL = ç log 10 ç ò p ( t) dt p0 (3) è T90 T 90 ø ù ú ú û (1) 5 Version 1.0

223 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna The sound exposure level (SEL, db re 1 µpa 2 s) is a measure of the total acoustic energy contained in one or more acoustic events. The SEL for a single event is computed from the time-integral of the squared pressure over the full event duration (T 100 ): æ ö SEL = ç log 10ç ò p ( t) dt T0 p0 è T100 ø where T 0 is a reference time interval of 1 s. The SEL represents the total acoustic energy received at some location during an acoustic event; it measures the total sound energy that an organism at that location would be exposed to. SEL can be calculated over periods with multiple acoustic events. The SEL over multiple events (db re 1 µpa 2 s) can be computed by summing (in linear units) the SELs of the N individual events: æ N ç å è i= SELi 10 Cumulative SEL = 10 log (5) Because the rms SPL and SEL are both computed from the integral of square pressure, these metrics are related by the following expression, which depends only on the duration of the energy time window T: rms SPL ( T ) 1 SEL -10log 10 ö ø = (6) rms SPL = 10log ( ) SEL- 10 T 90 - (7) where the db factor accounts for the rms SPL containing 90% of the total energy from the perpulse SEL. Comparisons of underwater and airborne sound levels are difficult for several reasons, primarily due to the differences in the media (or impedance), and it is important to take into account the reference pressure level noted previously (1 µpa for underwater, 20 µpa for airborne). Thus, 26 db must be added to the db level measured in air in order to have the same reference level in water (20 log 20) = 26. (4) 1.3. Types of Sound Anthropogenic sounds can affect marine life in a variety of ways, and these effects have been the focus of numerous scientific reviews and workshops over the past 40 years (Payne and Webb 1971, Fletcher and Busnel 1978, Richardson et al. 1995, MMC 2007, Nowacek et al. 2007, Southall et al. 2007, Weilgart 2007, Tyack 2008). When measuring the impact of anthropogenic sound on marine life, sounds have been divided into two main categories: pulsed (with pulses divided into single and multiple pulses) and non-pulsed sounds (Southall et al. 2007). Pulsed or impulsive sounds include pile driving and airgun shots as well as some sonar, while non-pulsed, continuous-type sounds include certain sonar and vessel propulsion sound. Pulsed and non-pulsed sounds are distinguished by numerous definitions and mathematical distinctions (e.g. Burdic 1984). Southall et al. (2007) adopted a measurement-based distinction proposed by Harris (1998) that a 3 db difference in measurements between the continuous and impulse sound level meter settings indicates that a sound is pulsed, while a < 3 db difference indicates a sound is non-pulsed. The distinction between these two sound types is not always obvious. Certain signals (e.g., acoustic deterrent and harassment devices) share properties of both pulsed and non-pulsed sounds. Near the source, a pulse may be produced, but farther from the source the signal may be categorised as non-pulsed due to propagation effects (e.g. Greene and Richardson 1988). It is important to note that that source-path-receiver model discussed below will influence how a sound is perceived by the receiver. For example, sound from a ship underway is continuous at the source, but will not be a continuous to a stationary receiver once it has passed by. Another example is that transient sound such as airguns are impulsive at the source, but due to the many factors that influence propagation, may be perceived as continuous at a farther distance by a receiver. As 6 Version 1.0

224 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna described in detail in Southall et al. (2007), pulses are transient sounds with rapid rise-time and high peak pressures and are potentially injurious to mammalian hearing. Non-pulsed sounds may not result in as much damage, but may still cause behavioural changes. Ambient noise is the background noise, encompassing all noise sources. Noise sources may include natural and anthropogenic sources near and far. Ambient noise varies with season, location, time of day, and frequency. The ambient noise in an environment will influence how well a receiver may detect a sound source of interest Propagation of Sound Transmission loss underwater is the decrease in acoustic intensity as a sound wave propagates out from a source through spreading loss, reflection, or absorption. Simply, spreading loss refers to the decrease in pressure that results from the increasing surface area a sound wave covers as it moves further from the source. The sound energy becomes spread over larger areas, so the energy per area, and consequently pressure, decreases. In a uniform medium, sound spreads out from the source in spherical waves sound levels in this situation typically diminish by 6 db due to spreading loss when the distance is doubled. Reflection (sound waves bouncing off a surface) and refraction (bending of the propagation path) affect sound propagation and can lead to areas of higher or lower sound level than if they were not present. Absorption is the loss of acoustic energy by internal scattering and conversion of pressure energy into heat within the propagation medium. Transmission loss parameters underwater vary with frequency, temperature, sea conditions, source and receiver depth, water chemistry, and bottom composition and topography. Transmission loss parameters in air vary with frequency, air temperature and humidity, wind, turbulence, cloud cover, type of ground cover between source and receiver, and source and receiver height. It is important to note that when comparing different sound levels, attention must be paid to the reference pressure, distance from the source to the receiver, units, and frequencies. (Richardson et al. 1995) describe a useful method for considering the process of sound generation, propagation and perception. This method is referred to as the source-path-receiver model: Source: the source of the emitted sound (such as an airgun or drillship). It has particular acoustic characteristics including its pitch and intensity. Path: the route from source to the receiver of the sound wave. The path may alter the nature of the source sound as it travels from the source to the receiver (terms often used are transmission or propagation). The path can include segments through air or water, or both. Receiver: the human or animal that perceives the sound after it has left the source and propagated over the path. Receivers have specific detection abilities, so not all receivers will detect or perceive a sound the same way. As noted previously, this section provides a very basic introduction to acoustic terminology that will be used in this EIS. For more details, a website with some basic introductions to sound in the sea is located at 7 Version 1.0

225 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna 2. General Impacts of Sound on Marine Species Responses of marine animals exposed to underwater anthropogenic sounds depend on many variables. Important features include the spatial relationships between a sound source and the animal, the hearing sensitivity of the animal, the received sound exposure, the duration of exposure, the duty cycle of the sound, the ambient sound level, and the animal s activity at time of exposure. Possible effects of sounds on marine animals can roughly be categorised as follows (based on (based on Richardson et al and, Southall et al. 2007) for marine mammals and Popper et al. (2014) for fish and turtles): Trauma and death Effects on hearing (including temporary and permanent hearing loss) Non-auditory health effects Self-stranding Auditory signal masking Behavioural disturbance Reduced availability of prey Population-level effects on fitness and survival Specifically we assess the likelihood of effects on marine mammals, fish (including whale sharks), turtles, crustaceans, molluscs, plankton, eggs/larvae and cephalopods based on the expected exposure levels Impacts on Marine Mammals The sounds that marine mammals hear and generate vary in characteristics such as the dominant frequency, bandwidth, energy, temporal pattern, and directivity. These features must be considered for each type of potential effect. Several of the above-mentioned potential effects are reviewed below. There is also a summary of the circumstances where they might occur for marine mammals exposed to sounds from this seismic survey Acoustic Masking Acoustic masking is the reduction in an animal s ability to perceive biologically relevant sounds because of interfering sounds. The amplitude, timing, and frequency content of the interfering sounds determine the amount of masking an animal experiences. Masking can decrease the range over which an animal may communicate with its peers, detect predators, or find food. The study of acoustic masking in the ocean has traditionally focused on mysticetes (a suborder also known as baleen whales includes right whales; rorquals; blue whales; and humpbacks) and shipping sounds. Mysticetes communicate using low-frequency calls that lie in the same frequency band as shipping sounds (Payne and Webb 1971). Over the past 50 years commercial shipping, the largest contributor of masking noise (McDonald et al. 2008), has increased the ambient sound levels in the deep ocean at low frequencies by db (Hatch and Wright 2007). Hatch et al. (2012) estimates that calling North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) may have lost, on average, 63 67% of their communication space due to shipping noise. Researchers are also concerned with other groups of cetaceans and acoustic masking by other sound sources. Sound from seismic surveys contribute to ocean-wide acoustic masking (Hildebrand 2009), and fish create low-frequency sounds ( Hz, most often Hz) that can be a significant component of local ambient sound levels (Zelick et al. 1999). There is increasing evidence that ship sounds can reach higher frequencies (e.g., up to 30 khz, Arveson and Vendittis 2000, and up to 44.8 khz, Aguilar Soto et al. 2006) at distances of at least 700 m (Aguilar Soto et al. 2006). Aguilar Soto et al. (2006) recorded a passing vessel on a Digital Acoustic Recording Tag (DTAG) attached to a Cuvier s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris). This recording demonstrated that vessel sounds masked the whale s ultrasonic vocalisations and reduced by 82% the maximum communication range when exposed to a 15 db increase in ambient sound levels at the vocalisation frequencies. The study also determined that the effective detection distance of Cuvier s beaked whales echolocation clicks would also be reduced by 58%. However, it is important to note that these 8 Version 1.0

226 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna calculations are based on observed noise increases at high frequencies from a single passing vessel, that noise profiles from ships are highly variable, and that high-frequency components attenuate more rapidly than low frequencies (Hatch and Wright 2007), limiting the area over which Cuvier s beaked whales would be affected. Wyatt (2008) prepared a compilation of known sound sensitives for a range of marine mammals which is presented in Table 1. Table 1. Known sound sensitivities of selected marine mammals (Wyatt 2008). Maximum Source Level (db re 1 µpa m) Frequency Range (Hz) Bottlenose Dolphin to 140 Echolocation Clicks (Harland and Richards 2006) Fin Whale to 1000 Vocalisations; pulses, moans (Heathershaw et al. 2001) Humpback Whale to 1000 Fluke and Flipper Slaps (Heathershaw et al. 2001) Bowhead Whale to 1000 Vocalisations; songs (Heathershaw et al. 2001) Blue Whale to 1000 Vocalisations; low frequency moans Right Whale to 1000 Vocalisations; impulsive signal (Heathershaw et al. 2001) (Heathershaw et al. 2001) Gray Whale to 1000 Vocalisations; moans (Heathershaw et al. 2001) Harbour Porpoise to 140 Echolocation Clicks (Harland and Richards 2005) Open Ocean Ambient Noise 74 to to 1000 Estimate for offshore central California sea state 3-5 (Heathershaw et al. 2001) Behavioural Disturbance Behavioural responses to underwater sound vary greatly, and there are many examples of individuals of the same species exposed to the same sound reacting differently (Nowacek et al. 2004). An individual s response to a stimulus is influenced by the context in which the stimulus is received and how the individual perceives its relevance. A number of biological and environmental factors can affect the response including age, sex, behavioural state at the time of exposure (e.g., resting, foraging, or socialising), perceived proximity and motion of the sound, and nature of the sound source. Temporary avoidance is one expected response to anthropogenic sounds, but animals may also display other behaviours. Some animals may respond to anthropogenic sounds by increasing vigilance (defined as scanning for the source of the stimulus); hiding or retreating or both, that may correspondingly result in decreased foraging time (Purser and Radford 2011). Marine mammals have also been observed to reduce vocalisations in response to anthropogenic sounds, sometimes ceasing to call for weeks or months (IWC 2007). Some cetaceans may also compensate for masking, to a limited degree, either by increasing the amplitude of their calls (Lombard effect) or by changing spectral (frequency content) and temporal properties of vocalisations (Hotchkin and Parks 2013). North Atlantic right whales produced calls with a higher average fundamental frequency and lowered their call rate in high noise conditions (Parks et al. 2007), whereas blue whales increased their discrete, audible calls during a seismic survey (Di Iorio and Clark 2010) or when ship sounds were nearby (Melcon et al. 2012). Whales seem most reactive when the sound level is increasing, which 9 Version 1.0

227 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna may be perceived as the source approaching. A startle effect may occur at the onset of a sound. Although limited data are available, stationary industrial activities producing continuous sounds (such as dredging, drilling, and oil-production-related activities) appear to produce reduced reactions by cetaceans than do moving sound sources, particularly ships (Richardson et al. 1995). Some cetaceans may partially habituate to continuous sounds (Richardson et al. 1995). For pulsed sounds specifically, there is evidence that the behavioural state of baleen whales (McCauley et al. 1998, Gordon et al. 2003) combined with their proximity to airgun sounds, affects how combined with their proximity to airgun sounds, affects how the whales react to these sounds. Several species of baleen whales showed avoidance behaviour to sounds from seismic surveys (Richardson et al. 1995), including bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus), avoiding distant seismic airguns at received levels of rms SPL of db re 1 µpa during fall migration (Richardson et al. 1999). The Richardson et al. (1999) behavioural levels should viewed as conservative for nonmigrating whales, as feeding whales are typically less likely to avoid sounds, whereas migrating whales are more likely to exhibit a temporary migration deflection to avoid sounds.. Feeding bowhead whales in the summer were more tolerant of airgun sounds avoiding airguns only when received levels reached db re 1 µpa (Richardson et al. 1995). Resting female humpback whales diverted to remain 7 12 km away although males were occasionally attracted to seismic survey sounds (McCauley et al. 2000). During the first 72 h of a 10 day seismic survey, fin whales appeared to move away from the airgun array, and the displacement persisted well beyond the 10 day duration of seismic airgun activity (Castellote et al. 2012). It was unknown, however, if the whales were avoiding the sound or following another cue such as a prey. Brandt et al. (2011) and Dähne et al. (2013) reported that harbour porpoises were displaced from a noise source (pile driving, another repeated impulsive sound). In response to airgun sounds, small odontocetes showed the strongest lateral spatial avoidance, mysticetes and killer whales showed more localised spatial avoidance, long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas) only showed a change in orientation, and sperm whales did not show any significant avoidance response (Stone and Tasker 2006). A recent report from BOEM (Barkaszi et al. 2012) indicated that defined species groups (all cetaceans, baleen whales, delphinids and sperm whales) were found to be sighted at significantly greater distances from seismic sources during full power than during silence, illustrating a level of spatial avoidance to the seismic source. Probable avoidance of active seismic sources by odontocetes is suggested by analysis of the reports of observers on seismic vessels in UK waters, collated by the UK Joint Nature Conservation Committee (Stone 2003). In contrast to these reports of avoidance by some whales, other observations suggest that sperm whales show little response and are not excluded from habitat by seismic surveys (e.g., Rankin and Evans 1998). The Sperm Whale Seismic Study conducted some controlled exposure experiments to determine the direction of movement in eight tagged sperm whales over a series of 30-minute intervals during pre-exposure, ramp-up, and full-array firing (Jochens et al. 2008). Results showed no horizontal avoidance to airgun exposure of < 150 db re 1 µ Pa (rms) and diving and foraging rates were affected only in one individual (longer resting period at the surface and diving immediately following the final airgun transmission). McDonald et al. (1995) observed that a blue whale stopped vocalising when within 10 km of an active seismic vessel. In response to Ocean Acoustic Waveguide Remote Sensing (OAWRS) frequency-modulated pulses, male humpback whales 200 km away from the sound either moved out of the study area or sang less (Risch et al. 2012). Humpback whales lengthened their mating songs during exposure to low-frequency active (LFA) sonar (Miller et al. 2000). Long-finned pilot whales produced more whistles in response to military mid-frequency sonar (Rendell and Gordon 1999). Recent work has shown that fin whales shortened the duration, decreased the frequency range, and lowered the centre and peak frequencies of their calls in response to shipping and airgun noise (Castellote et al. 2012), and that bowhead calling rates initially increase as seismic sound exposures increase from ambient, but that the rate levels off and peaks as seismic levels increase then falls off with further increase, until they are silent when cumulative SEL10-min values were above ~160 db re 1 μpa 2 -s (Blackwell et al. 2015). For non-pulse sounds specifically, the review by Southall et al. (2007) found no response or limited responses by low-frequency cetaceans to continuous (non-pulsed) received levels up to 120 db re 1 µpa but an increasing probability of avoidance (and other behavioural responses) beginning at 120 to 160 db re 1 µpa. In the Bay of Fundy, NS, Polacheck and Thorpe (1990) found harbour porpoises (high-frequency cetaceans) tended to swim away from approaching vessels. Off the western coast of North America, Barlow (1988) observed that harbour porpoises within 1 km of a survey vessel moved 10 Version 1.0

228 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna rapidly out of its path. Decreased vocalisation associated with prey capture attempts has been observed in a Cuvier s beaked whale in response to ship sound (Aguilar Soto et al. 2006). Foraging changes were observed in Blainville s beaked whales (Mesoplodon densirostris) following exposure to vessel noise (Pirotta et al. 2012). Groups of Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis), which contained mother-calf pairs, increased their rate of whistling after a boat had transited the area (Van Parijs and Corkeron 2001). The authors postulated that vessel sounds disrupted group cohesion, especially between mother-calf pairs, requiring the re-establishment of vocal contact after masking from boat noise. In responses to high levels of boat traffic, killer whales increased the duration (Foote et al. 2004) or the amplitude (Holt et al. 2009) of their calls. Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) produced more whistles in response to boat approaches (Buckstaff 2004) Temporary and Permanent Hearing Loss Physical impacts to the auditory apparatus can occur from exposure to intense sound and may result in a loss of hearing sensitivity. A temporary threshold shift (TTS) is hearing loss that is recovered within minutes or hours, whereas permanent threshold shift (PTS) is hearing loss that does not recover. The severity of TTS is expressed as the duration of hearing impairment and the magnitude of the shift in hearing sensitivity relative to pre-exposure sensitivity. TTS generally occurs at lower sound levels than PTS and repeated TTS, especially if the animal receives another sound exposure before recovery from the previous TTS, is thought to cause PTS. If the sound is intense enough, however, an animal can succumb to PTS without first experiencing TTS (Weilgart 2007). Though the relationship between the onset of TTS and the onset of PTS is not fully understood, TTS onset can be used to predict sound levels that are likely to result in PTS. Experiments with captive bottlenose dolphins have shown that short tonal sounds can cause TTS (Schlundt et al. 2000). Mild TTS has also been demonstrated in dolphins exposed to lower sound levels for periods up to 50 min (Finneran et al. 2005, Kastak et al. 2005). Impulsive sounds from a watergun (Finneran et al. 2002) or airgun (Lucke et al. 2009) can cause TTS in beluga whales and harbour porpoises respectively; although the levels required for impulsive sounds to do so were much higher than the 1 s tonal signals. Cook (2006) found that captive odontocetes typically had more hearing loss than similar-aged free-ranging dolphins. Older bottlenose dolphins in captivity are known to have reduced hearing sensitivity, especially at the higher frequencies, but the cause of this hearing loss is unknown (Ridgway and Carder 1997) Reduction of Prey Availability Sound might indirectly affect marine mammals through its effects on prey abundance, behaviour, and distribution. Rising sound levels are a concern for fish populations (e.g., McCauley et al. 2003, Popper and Hastings 2009, Slabbekoorn et al. 2010), and marine fish are typically sensitive to the Hz range, where most seismic sound is produced. The potential impacts on fish are discussed in Section 2.2. While no studies have investigated the indirect effects of seismic airguns on prey availability in marine mammals, it is possible that feeding opportunities for marine mammals might change because of seismic surveys Fishes Recently, a working group of experts reviewed available data and determined broadly applicable sound exposure guidelines for fishes and sea turtles. The working group s recommendations are available in a technical report, Popper et al. 2014, which was developed and approved by the Accredited Standards Committee S3/SC 1 Animal Bioacoustics and registered with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The technical report contains the most recent and thorough synthesis of available information, and the results were used as the basis for this study s assessment. These sound exposure guidelines form the criteria to assess the potential for noise impacts on fish. To examine the potential impacts of underwater noise from airgun arrays on reef fish and coral communities, Woodside conducted a series of experiments (the Maxima studies) in 2007 during the Maxima 3D Marine Seismic Survey (MSS) at Scott Reef off the northwest coast of Western Australia. 11 Version 1.0

229 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna The studies included experiments of fish pathology, physiology, and hearing sensitivity, as well as diversity and abundance of fish and coral via detailed Multiple Before/After Control Impact (MBACI) studies. Woodside analysed in situ noise logger data collected during the Maxima studies to determine received sound exposure levels of in situ fish and coral. The Maxima study results for fish pathology, physiology, and hearing sensitivity concur with the Popper et al. (2014) technical report. There are many sources of anthropogenic sounds. Popper et al. (2014) classified sound sources by the type of sound produced (e.g. continuous versus impulsive), and separately evaluated impacts from data available for common sources such as seismic airguns and vessels. There are also a great many species of fish and their use of and susceptibility to sound can vary with species. Popper et al. (2014) categorised fishes according to likely hearing abilities based primarily on the presence or absence of a swim bladder and its role in hearing. Fish with no swim bladder are least susceptible to injury due to sound exposure. Most bony fish, however, do have a swim bladder to regulate buoyancy and the presence of the swim bladder (or other gas-filled chamber) makes these fish more susceptible to trauma from sudden pressure changes. The swim bladder of some fish species is directly linked to their ears, which increases the fish s pressure sensitivity and extends their hearing frequency range. Because of these adaptations, fish species in which the swim bladder is directly involved in hearing are the most sensitive to the effects of acoustic exposure. Fish eggs and larvae are considered as a separate and singular category. Negative impacts of acoustic exposure can range from immediate effects such as mortality, hearing impairment such as temporary threshold shift (TTS), or masking communication space to more subtle, longer term effects such as behavioural changes, including being displaced from a preferred area. In general, any adverse effects of seismic sound on fish behaviour can depend on the species, the motivational state of the individuals exposed, and numerous other factors that are difficult, if not impossible, to quantify, given such limited data on effects of airgun sound on fish, particularly under realistic at-sea conditions. Several of the above-mentioned potential effects are reviewed below and summarised by what circumstances might occur for fish and turtles exposed to sounds from this seismic survey, drawing substantially from the Popper et al. (2014) report Effects on Behaviour The National Research Council (NRC 2005) discussed the possible effects of sound upon behaviour, including communication between conspecifics and detection of predators and prey. Popper et al. (2014) summarises: In its report, the NRC states that an action or activity becomes biologically significant to an individual animal when it interferes with normal behaviour and activity, or affects the animal s ability to grow, survive, and reproduce. Such effects may have consequences at the population-level and may affect the viability of the species (NRC 2005). Studying the responses of fish to anthropogenic sound is difficult; many factors could influence the results, and a careful approach based on well-designed experiments must be adopted. Experiments done with caged animals need to be considered in conjunction with studies on free-living animals, as results may differ due to the many factors that determine a wild animal s behaviour. A range of responses has been observed when the behaviour of wild fishes has been studied in the presence of anthropogenic sounds. Typically, studies have demonstrated that fish will generally move away from a loud acoustic source in order to minimise their exposure. Anthropogenic sounds have also been shown to cause changes in schooling patterns and distribution, including in relation to airgun operations (Engås et al. 1996, Engås and Løkkeborg 2002, Slotte et al. 2004, Løkkeborg et al. 2012b, 2012a, Popper et al. 2014). Woodside s studies specifically related to a coral reefassociated fish community found no detectable effect on species richness or abundance (Woodside 2007, Miller and Cripps 2013). Wood et al. (2012) also described that reductions in fish catches have been observed in commercial line and trawl fisheries during and after seismic surveys, but that catches have also increased, with the increase attributed to a change in fish activity in response to the airgun sounds. 12 Version 1.0

230 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Masking Masking is a hearing impairment with respect to the relevant sound sources normally detected within the soundscape. The consequences of masking for fishes have not been fully examined. Popper et al. (2014) surmised, It is likely that increments in background sound within the hearing bandwidth of fishes and sea turtles may render the weakest sounds undetectable, render some sounds less detectable, and reduce the distance at which sound sources can be detected. Energetic and informational masking may increase as sound levels increase, so that the higher the sound level of the masker, the greater the masking. Masking only occurs as long as the masking sound is present, therefore masking resulting from a single pulse of sound (such as an airgun shot), or widely separated pulses, may not affect fitness. However, if impulsive sounds are generated repeatedly by many sources over a wide geographic area (such as concurrent seismic survey activity across the Bay of Bengal) then there is the possibility that the separate sounds may merge and the overall background noise be raised (e.g., Nieukirk et al. 2004) Effects on Hearing Fish can experience both permanent and temporary hearing loss. Permanent hearing loss can be a result of the death of the of the sensory hair cells in the ear, damage to the innervating auditory nerve fibres Hearing loss can be permanent or temporary. Permanent loss of hearing may be a consequence of the death of the sensory hair cells in the ear, damage to the innervating auditory nerve fibers (Liberman 2014) or damage to other tissues in the auditory pathway (i.e. swim bladder). TTS has been demonstrated in some fishes, and its extent is of variable duration and magnitude. It results from either temporary changes in sensory hair cells of the inner ear and/or damage to auditory nerves innervating the ear (Smith et al. 2006, Liberman 2014). However unlike mammals, sensory hair cells are constantly added in fishes, and replaced when damaged. Therefore when soundinduced hair cell death occurs in fishes, its effects may be mitigated over time by the addition of new hair cells (Popper et al. 2014). Although after the termination of a sound that causes TTS, normal hearing ability returns (depending upon many factors, including the duration and intensity of the sound exposure), while experiencing TTS, fishes may have a decrease in fitness in terms of communication, detecting predators or prey, and/or assessing their environment (Popper et al. 2014) Death and Injury Death and injury can result from exposure to very high amplitude sounds (Carlson and Johnson 2010). The effects of changes in pressure (barotrauma) must also be considered for impulsive sounds. Barotrauma endpoints include lethal injury through immediate mortality or delayed mortality and a number of injuries with varying severity from which full recovery is possible. Injuries that are potentially recoverable, such as fin hematomas, capillary dilation, and loss of sensory hair cells may still lead to death if they decrease fitness and the animal is subject to predation or disease (Popper et al. 2014) Sea Turtles The Popper et al. (2014) report examined sea turtles as well as fish, and the assessment recommended guidelines form the criteria to assess the potential for noise impacts on turtles. In general data on sea turtles seems to be less conclusive than it is for other species, from the perspective of both level of harm and reaction. Sea turtles have been shown to avoid low frequency sounds from an airgun (O'Hara and Wilcox 1990), but the received sound levels in these reports were unknown. Moein et al. (1995) found that penned loggerhead sea turtles initially reacted to an airgun and then habituated to it. Caged green 13 Version 1.0

231 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna and loggerhead sea turtles increased swimming activity in response to an approaching airgun when the received rms SPL was above 166 db re 1 μpa and they behaved erratically when the received rms SPL was approximately 175 db re 1 μpa (McCauley et al. 2000). increased swimming speed increased activity change in swimming direction avoidance 2.4. Invertebrates The existing body of information on the direct effects of exposure to seismic airgun sound on marine invertebrates is very limited. However, there is some evidence of the potential for adverse effects on invertebrates. Based on the physical structure of their sensory organs, marine invertebrates appear to be specialised to respond to particle displacement components of an impinging sound field and not to the pressure component (Popper et al. 2001). Reviews such as those conducted by Department Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO [DFO] Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2004) have found that current knowledge doesn t provide enough scientific evidence to draw many conclusions (positive or negative effects) about exposure to airgun sounds, other than that seismic sound is unlikely to result in direct invertebrate mortality. The exception is invertebrates within 5 m of the airgun. DFO (2004) did conclude that there is a high likelihood of invertebrates exhibiting a startle response, and/or a change in swimming or movement patterns in the presence of seismic sound, and both increases and decreases in catch rates of commercially exploited species have been observed. The current paucity of information in this field makes assessment of the impact from anthropogenic sound sources limited, but a number of studies are underway that will contribute greatly to the overall comprehension of impacts on these species. DFO concluded that there is a high likelihood of invertebrates exhibiting a startle response, and a change in swimming or movement patterns in the presence of seismic sound. It observed that both increases and decreases in catch rates of commercially exploited species have been documented but such changes do not occur consistently. Any effects on invertebrates are expected to be short-term with a duration equal to the time of exposure, but may vary from species to species 14 Version 1.0

232 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna 3. Acoustic Thresholds 3.1. Marine Mammals In 1998, a group of experts was convened in an effort to update and establish methods for determining acoustic exposure criteria (Gentry et al. 2004). The results of the expert group were published as Southall et al and are commonly referred to as the Southall criteria. The Southall criteria are used here as the bases for developing the exposure criteria Marine Mammal Frequency Weighting Functions The potential for noise to affect marine animals depends on how well the animals can hear it. Noises are less likely to disturb or injure an animal if they are at frequencies that the animal cannot hear well. An exception occurs when the sound pressure is so high that it can physically injure an animal by non-auditory means (i.e., barotrauma). For sound levels below such extremes, the importance of sound components at particular frequencies can be scaled by frequency weighting relevant to an animal s sensitivity to those frequencies (Nedwell and Turnpenny 1998, Nedwell et al. 2007). Based on a literature review of marine mammal hearing and on physiological and behavioural responses to anthropogenic sound, Southall et al. (2007) proposed standard frequency weighting functions called M-weighting functions for three functional hearing groups of cetaceans (Table 2): Low-frequency cetaceans (LFCs) mysticetes (baleen whales) Mid-frequency cetaceans (MFCs) some odontocetes (toothed whales) High-frequency cetaceans (HFCs) odontocetes specialized for using high-frequencies Table 2. Marine Mammal Functional Hearing Groups, Auditory Bandwidth (estimated lower to upper frequency hearing cut-off), and Genera Represented in Each Group (Modified from Southall et al. 2007). Functional Hearing Group Lowfrequency cetaceans Estimated Auditory Bandwidth 7 Hz to 22 khz Genera Represented (Number of species/subspecies) Balaena, Caperea, Eschrichtius, Megaptera, Balaenoptera 13 Number of species/subspecies Midfrequency cetaceans 150 Hz to 160 khz Steno, Sousa, Sotalia, Tursiops, Stenella, Delphinus, Lagenodelphis, Lagenorhynchus, Lissodelphis, Grampus, Peponocephala, Feresa, Pseudorca, Orcinus, Globicephala, Orcaella, Physeter, Delphinapterus, Monodon, Ziphius, Berardius, Tasmacetus, Hyperoodon, Mesoplodon 57 Highfrequency cetaceans 200 Hz to 180 khz Phocoena, Neophocaena, Phocoenoides, Platanista, Inia, Kogia, Lipotes, Pontoporia, Cephalorhynchus 20 Later, Finneran and Jenkins (2012) developed alternate weighting functions based on perceptual measure of subjective loudness. Equal-loudness contours may better match the onset of hearing impairment (temporary threshold shift) than the original M-weighting functions. Data on equalloudness does not, however, cover the full frequency range of the M-weighting filters. Finneran and Jenkins (2012) therefore proposed a hybrid filter based on the equal-loudness contours in their measured frequency band and, outside of this range, the original M-weighting function was discounted to match the end points of the equal-loudness functions. Finneran and Jenkins (2012) term the hybrid filters Type II M-weighting to distinguish them from the original M-weighting of Southall et al. (2007), which they term Type I M-weighting. The Type II filtering proposed for mysticetes has not been fully accepted for non- US Navy application. The Type I filtering for LFC has been proposed by Wood et al. (2012), except with a lower threshold than proposed by Southall et al. (2007): 192 db 15 Version 1.0

233 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna re μpa 2 s instead of 198 db re μpa 2 s. Separate SPL peak pressure criteria for injury are also defined but no filtering is generally applied with this metric. The SEL metric integrates noise intensity over the period of exposure. For sounds that do not have a clear start or end time, or for very long-lasting exposures, the period of integration to use for its use in regulatory assessment is not well defined. Southall et al. (2007) suggest an integration time of 24 h. The single shot SEL should be summed to calculate the cumulative SEL upon which effects are assessed. Using the Southall et al. suggestion, the sum of all shot SEL s received over 24 hours would be proposed. Many of those exposures would be from large distances and consequently would contribute very little to the 24 hour sum. In fact, due to the nature of the rapid variation of seismic shot sound levels with distance, it is typically only a few shots from the closest animal approach distances that contribute substantially to the overall sum during normal towed seismic surveys. Therefore, the effective integration time can be much less than 24 hours. Nevertheless, the SEL from more than one shot must always be accounted for when using this metric. Calculating the multiple shot exposure levels marine mammals in the survey region would be exposed to from the seismic survey, is not achievable within the scope of this assessment, and is complex due to the unknown s regarding the typical paths of marine animals in the region. Therefore the NMFS exposure criterion of 180 db re 1 µpa (unweighted) for marine mammals to sequences of pulsed sounds (NMFS 1995, NMFS 2000) will be applied as the physiological impact threshold for the impact assessment Behavioural Exposure Criteria Selection Southall et al. (2007) extensively reviewed behavioural responses to sounds. Their review found that most marine mammals exhibited varying responses between rms SPLs of 140 and 180 db re 1 µpa but lack of convergence in the data from multiple studies prevents them from suggesting explicit step functions. Lack of controls, precise measurements, appropriate metrics, and context dependency of responses (including the activity state of the animal) all contribute to variability. Southall et al. (2007) proposed a severity scale that increases with increased sound level as a qualitative scaling paradigm. Wood et al. (2012) subsequently published new criteria, which are being considered by regulators. Some of the same scientists that worked on Wood et al. (2012) were involved in Southall et al. (2007). Southall was the second author on Wood et al. (2012). One of the regulators considering the new criteria is NMFS in the United States; however at this time they have not been formally accepted. The new criteria suggested for pulsed sounds, Wood et al included a graded probability of response with 10% response likelihood at an rms SPL of 140 db re 1 µpa, 50% at an rms SPL of 160 db re 1 µpa, and 90% at an rms SPL of 180 db re 1 µpa for most marine mammals. Wood et al. (2012) also designated behavioural response categories for migrating mysticetes and sensitive species, such as harbour porpoises and beaked whales. For the sensitive species, the likelihood of a 50% response was set to an rms SPL of 120 db re 1 µpa; 90% response probability was set at an rms SPL of 140 db re 1 µpa (Wood et al. 2012). For this assessment the NMFS step function, (unweighted) rms SPL of 160 db re 1 µpa (NMFS 1995, NMFS 2000) was used to determine the number of behavioural responses. The NMFS step function was selected as it represents the most commonly applied behavioural response criteria by regulators Fish, Sea Turtles, Plankton, Eggs and Larvae We apply the Popper et al. (2014) threshold criteria and likelihood of impacts for fish (including whale sharks), sea turtles, eggs and larvae (including plankton) exposed to seismic airguns. The effects thresholds are summarised in Table 3. The likelihood of impairment due to masking or a behavioural change is also based on the distance of the fish from the source. The ranges considered are near, intermediate, and far from the source. Although not strictly defined, near the source is taken to be tens of metres; intermediate is hundreds of metres; far is thousands of metres. The relative risk of an effect is then rated as being high, moderate, and low with respect to source distance and animal type. The report makes no assumptions about source or received levels because 16 Version 1.0

234 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna there are insufficient data to quantify what these distances might be. However, in general the nearer the animal is to the source the higher the likelihood of high energy and a resultant effect. In determining these distances and the potential effects, actual source and received levels, along with the sensitivity to the sources by the animals of concern should be considered. The ratings for effects presented in Popper et al. (2014) are highly subjective, as admitted by the authors, however as the authorship group represents some of the most respected and leading experts in the field, and the ratings represent the general consensus of the group, they will be used for the impact assessment. Quantitative received level thresholds are listed for TTS impairment, recoverable injury, and potential mortal injury. Impairment in the form of TTS may occur when the animal receives SEL > 186 db re 1 µpa 2 s; however, for fish without a swim bladder, and for fish whose swim bladder is not directly involved in hearing, the threshold for TTS is expected to be much greater than 186 db re 1 µpa 2 s SEL. Dual criteria are used for potential mortal injury and recoverable injury. The dual criteria establish thresholds for SEL and peak SPL. Injury may occur if either threshold of the dual criteria is exceeded. Recoverable injury may occur at SEL > 203 db re 1 µpa 2 s or peak SPL > 207 db re 1 µpa for fish with swim bladders, and SEL > 216 db re 1 µpa 2 s or peak SPL > 213 db re 1 µpa for fish without swim bladders. SEL that results in potential mortal injury is higher, > 207, 210, and 216 db re 1 µpa 2 s SEL for, respectively, fish with swim bladders involved in hearing, fish with swim bladder not involved in hearing, and fish with no swim bladder. Quantitative, dual-criteria thresholds are given for eggs and larvae for potential mortal injury at SEL > 210 db re 1 µpa 2 s SEL or peak SPL > 207 db re 1 µpa, respectively, but likelihood of occurrence is listed for impairment and behaviour. While it is evident that behavioural reactions can occur due to exposure to seismic airgun sounds, there are no data that can be applied to develop guidelines (Popper et al. 2014). Estimates of the behavioural response will therefore be conducted using the relative risk criteria. The SEL metric integrates noise intensity over the period of exposure. For sounds that do not have a clear start or end time, or for very long-lasting exposures, the period of integration to use for its use in regulatory assessment is not well defined, however Popper et al. (2014) recommended an integration time of 24 h. The application of the cumulative SEL metric which should be used to assess effects are described in Section Although the TTS ranges are provided for information, they have been determined for a single shot SEL only. 17 Version 1.0

235 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Table 3. Criteria for seismic airguns, adapted from Popper et al. (2014). Type of Animal Mortality and potential mortal injury Impairment Recoverable injury TTS Masking Behaviour Fish: no swim bladder (particle motion detection) > 219 db 24 h SEL or > 213 db peak > 216 db 24 h SEL or > 213 db peak >> 186 db 24 h SEL (N) Low (I) Low (F) Low (N) High (I) Moderate (F) Low Fish: swim bladder is not involved in hearing (particle motion detection) 210 db 24 h SEL or > 207 db peak 203 db 24 h SEL or > 207 db peak >> 186 db 24 h SEL (N) Low (I) Low (F) Low (N) High (I) Moderate (F) Low Fish: swim bladder is involved in hearing (primarily pressure detection) 207 db 24 h SEL or > 207 db peak 203 db 24 h SEL or > 207 db peak 186 db 24 h SEL (N) Low (I) Low (F) Moderate (N) High (I) High (F) Moderate Sea turtles 210 db 24 h SEL or >207 db peak (N) High (I) Low (F) Low (N) High (I) Low (F) Low (N) Low (I) Low (F) Low (N) High (I) Moderate (F) Low Eggs and larvae > 210 db 24 h SEL or > 207 db peak (N) Moderate (I) Low (F) Low (N) Moderate (I) Low (F) Low (N) Low (I) Low (F) Low (N) Moderate (I) Low (F) Low Notes: peak sound pressure level db re 1 µpa; 24 h SEL db re 1 µpa 2 s. All criteria are presented as sound pressure even for fish without swim bladders since no data for particle motion exist. Relative risk (high, moderate, low) is given for animals at three distances from the source defined in relative terms as near (N), intermediate (I), and far (F) Sea Turtle Exposure Criteria There is a paucity of data regarding the response of sea turtles to acoustic exposure, and no studies of hearing loss or the effects of exposure to loud sounds. (McCauley et al. 2000) recorded the behavioural response of caged turtles green (Chelonia mydas) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) to an approaching seismic airgun. For received levels above 166 db re 1 μpa rms the turtles increased their swimming activity and above 175 db re 1 μpa rms they began to behave erratically, which was interpreted as an agitated state. The 166 db re 1 μpa rms level has been used as the threshold level for a disturbance behavioural response by NMFS and continued in the Arctic Programmatic Environment Impact Statement (PEIS) ([NSF] National Science Foundation (U.S.) et al. 2011). At the time, and in the absence of any data on which to determine the sound levels that may cause injury, TTS or PTS onset were considered possible at rms SPL 180 db re 1 μpa ([NSF] National Science Foundation (U.S.) et al. 2011). Some additional data suggest that behavioural responses occur closer to SPL 175 db re 1 μpa rms and TTS or PTS at even higher levels (Moein et al. 1995), but the received levels were not easily known and the NSF (2011) PEIS maintained the earlier NMFS criteria levels of rms SPL of 166 and 180 db re 1 μpa for behavioural response and injury, respectively. Popper et al. (2014) suggests injury to turtles may occur for sound exposures of > 207 db peak SPL or > 210 db SEL 18 Version 1.0

236 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Table 3. Popper et al. (2014) define sound levels that may result in behavioural response, but does indicate a high likelihood of response near an airgun (10s of metres), moderate response at intermediate ranges (100s of metres), and low response far (thousands of meters) from the airgun. Both the NMFS criteria for behavioural disturbance (rms SPL of 166 db re 1 μpa) and the Popper et al. (2014) injury criteria will be evaluated for this analysis, though this doesn t consider the ranges at which impairment may occur. 19 Version 1.0

237 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna 4. Predicted Sound Propagation from the MSS in Block A-7 The bathymetry of Block A-7 is characterised by the crossing of the continental shelf, approximately 40 to 50 km offshore. Water depth in the deep ocean is approximately 2000 m, and the slope rises to a depth of approximately 200 m then becomes shallower gradually towards the coast. The marine seismic surveys will take place from the deep water area in west, across the slope and then into shore to a depth of 50 m, which occurs approximately km offshore depending on the immediate bathymetry. The propagation of sound in the marine environment is highly dependent on the depth and geometry of seabed, implying that there are essentially 2 regimes that need to be considered for block A7 deep water and shallow water. There will of course be a transitional area when the survey crosses the slope, but those effects cannot be determined without detailed modelling, which given the level of impact not necessarily warranted for this study. In order to assess the impact of the seismic survey, the propagation of the airgun sounds must be understood. The propagation of seismic sounds is complex due to the close proximity of airguns to the sea surface; surface-reflected sound interferes with the downward-propagating sounds in a complex way, producing both constructive and destructive interference depending on the sound frequency and vertical angle of propagation away from the source. This is further complicated by interference from bottom reflected sounds, and sounds that reflect multiple times from the surface and bottom. Simple rule-of-thumb acoustic propagation models do not work well for predicting noise levels produced by seismic airgun arrays. Such is the complexity of calculating noise propagation that a computer model is applied to simulate the noise field. Examples provided here represent the model produced by a generic 4000 in 3 airgun array at 2 different water depths 200 m and 2000 m, to simulate shallow and deep water respectively. The source levels and directivity of the airgun array are calculated using JASCO s Airgun Array Source Model (MacGillivray 2006). AASM includes empirical parameters that were tuned so model output matches observed airgun behaviour for many types of airguns. That model produces notional point source pressure signatures for each airgun of the array. These signatures were combined to calculate far-field source pressure metrics, representing horizontal direction emissions directly behind (endfire) and to the side (broadside) that are listed in Table 4. Table 4. Horizontal source level specifications ( Hz) for the seismic airgun array (4000 in 3 ) at 7 m depth, computed with AASM in the broadside and endfire directions. Direction Zero-to-peak SPL (db re 1 1 m) rms SPL (db re 1 1 m) SEL (db re 1 µpa 1 m) khz khz 1 2 khz Broadside Endfire The source pressure levels which are calculated by AASM are then processed in an acoustic propagation model, in the case of this example JASCO s VSTACK model. VSTACK computes synthetic pressure wave forms versus depth and range for arbitrarily layered, range-independent acoustic environments using the wavenumber integration approach. VSTACK can compute sound propagation considering the elasto-acoustic properties of the sea bottom including a wide variety of complex acoustic properties associated with various bathymetric and stratigraphic characteristics of the seabed. The output of the model is post-processed to yield estimates of the SEL, rms SPL, and peak SPL. Assumptions were made about the sound speed profile (assumed constant at 1500 m/s) and the geoacoustic parameters (muddy sand over sand assumed) Deep Water Thresholds Cetaceans The injury and behavioural threshold radii for the 4000 in³ airgun array, in 2000 m deep water are presented in Table Version 1.0

238 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Table 5. Horizontal distances (in m) from the source to injury and behavioural thresholds, 2000 m water depth. For the 4000 in³ airgun array, thresholds defined in Section 3.1. Horizontal grid resolution is 50 m. Criteria rms SPL (db re 1 µpa) R (m) Injury Behaviour Deep Water Thresholds Fish, Sea Turtles, Eggs and Larvae The injury and TTS threshold radii for the 4000 in³ airgun array, in 2000 m deep water are presented in Tables 6 and 7. Table 6. Per-pulse SELs and peak SPLs for fish, sea turtles, fish eggs, and fish larvae, 2000 m water depth: Maximum horizontal distances (in m) from the source to modelled 100 m depth unweighted per-pulse SEL and peak SPLs ( Hz) for the 4000 in 3 array. Horizontal grid resolution is 50 m. Popper et al. (2014) thresholds are listed in 21 Version 1.0

239 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Table 3. Type of animal Mortality and potential mortal injury Recoverable injury Single shot TTS Peak SPL Peak SPL SEL Fish: no swim bladder <50 <50 <50 Fish: swim bladder not involved in hearing <90 <90 <90 Fish: swim bladder involved in hearing <90 <90 90 Sea turtles < Plankton, fish eggs and larvae < Table 7. Behavioural response for sea turtles, 2000 m water depth: Maximum horizontal distances (in m) from the source to modelled 100 m depth rms SPLs ( Hz) for the 4000 in 3 array. Per-pulse rms SPLs for sea turtles, NMFS criteria (Section 3.3). Horizontal grid resolution is 50 m. Turtle behavioural response threshold, rms SPL, (db re 1 µpa) R (m) Shallow Water Thresholds Cetaceans The injury and behavioural threshold radii for the 4000 in³ airgun array, in 200 m deep water are presented in Table 8. Table 8. Horizontal distances (in m) from the source to injury and behavioural thresholds, 200 m water depth. For the 4000 in³ airgun array, thresholds defined in Section 3.1. Horizontal grid resolution is 50 m. Criteria rms SPL (db re 1 µpa) R (m) Injury Behaviour 160 6, Shallow Water Thresholds Fish, Sea Turtles, Eggs and Larvae The injury and TTS threshold radii for the 4000 in³ airgun array, in 200 m deep water are presented in Tables 9 and 10. Table 9. Per-pulse SELs and peak SPLs for fish, sea turtles, fish eggs, and fish larvae, 200 m water depth: Maximum horizontal distances (in m) from the source to modelled 100 m depth unweighted per-pulse SELs and peak SPLs ( Hz) for the 4000 in 3 array. Horizontal grid resolution is 50 m. Popper et al. (2014) thresholds are listed in 22 Version 1.0

240 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Table 3. Type of Animal Mortality and potential mortal injury Recoverable Injury Single shot TTS Peak SPL Peak SPL SEL Fish: no swim bladder <50 <50 <90 Fish: swim bladder not involved in hearing Fish: swim bladder involved in hearing <90 <90 <90 <90 <90 90 Sea turtles < Plankton, fish eggs and larvae < Table 10. Behavioural response for sea turtles, 200 m water depth: Maximum horizontal distances (in m) from the source to modelled 100 m depth rms SPLs ( Hz) for the 4000 in 3 array. Per-pulse rms SPLs for sea turtles, NMFS criteria (Section 3.3). Horizontal grid resolution is 50 m. Turtle behavioural response threshold (rms SPL, (db re 1 µpa) R (m) 166 2, Projected Impacts Marine Mammals Sound produced by seismic airguns has the potential to cause physiological effects of varying severity from behaviour modifications up to auditory injury to marine mammals. Injurious effects are unlikely except in extreme proximity to the airgun array source. In consideration of the mitigation measures that are planned (JNCC guidelines), which do not require the source to be shut down once operational, it is possible that marine mammals could experience behavioural reactions and perhaps temporary physiological change (i.e. TTS). However, the injury ranges for all animals are smaller than the 500 m observation radius applied prior to startup under the JNCC criteria. It is assumed that animals will divert around this zone once the airguns are in full operation. The effects on cetaceans are generally expected to be limited to avoidance of the area around the seismic operation and short-term changes in behaviour. The behavioural responses could occur within 2.0 km in deep water and 6.1 km in shallow water of the airgun source, using the 160 db re 1 µpa NMFS criteria. In general, the temporal and spatial scale of behavioural response on marine mammals would likely be short-term and limited to the localised area surrounding an active airgun. Because single seismic surveys are conducted on relatively small spatial scales (e.g., on closely spaced transects in small areas) or temporal scales (e.g., widely spaced transects), significant effects at the population level are not expected except in very unusual circumstances, none of which apply to this survey. Therefore, adverse effects on mammals caused by exposure to the proposed seismic survey are expected to be negligible in the deep water regime and slightly greater in the shallow water regime. 23 Version 1.0

241 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Fish Sound produced by seismic airgun arrays could cause physiological effects, injury, and perhaps mortality to a small number of some fish species, particularly larval and egg stages, if the animals are in extreme proximity to the airgun source. However, no population-level effects would be expected given the restricted zone of pathological effects. Similarly, airgun sound could potentially disturb fish close to airgun sources. To be significant, such behavioural changes would have to result in an overall reduction in the health, abundance, or catchability of a species of concern at the population level. In general, the temporal and spatial scale of behavioural response on marine fish would likely be short-term and limited to the localised area immediately surrounding an active airgun. Because single seismic surveys are conducted on relatively small spatial scales (e.g., on closely spaced transects in small areas) or temporal scales (e.g., widely spaced transects), significant effects at the population level are not expected except in very unusual circumstances (e.g., small, isolated populations). Therefore, adverse effects on various life stages of fish caused by exposure to the proposed seismic survey are expected to be negligible in both deep and shallow water Turtles Sound produced by seismic airguns could cause physiological effects, injury, and perhaps mortality to sea turtles if they are within 90 m of an airgun source (Popper et al. 2014). No population-level effects would be expected given the restricted zone of pathological effects. Impairment ranges were not determined, however that could occur at ranges within the disturbance radius. Airgun sounds could potentially disturb turtles close to airgun sources (within 850 m in deep water and 2.8 km in shallow water) according to the NMFS 166 db re 1 µpa criteria. To be significant, such behavioural changes would have to result in an overall reduction in the health and abundance at the population level. In general, the temporal and spatial scale of behavioural response on sea turtles would likely be shortterm and limited to the localised area immediately surrounding an active airgun array. Because single seismic surveys are conducted on relatively small spatial scales (e.g., on closely spaced transects in small areas) or temporal scales (e.g., widely spaced transects), significant effects at the population level are not expected. Therefore, adverse effects on sea turtles caused by exposure to the proposed seismic survey are expected to be negligible in the deep water regime and slightly greater in the shallow water regime Plankton, Eggs, and Larvae The impacts on these species are expected to be extremely low, with mortality rates caused by exposure to airgun sounds being low compared to natural mortality. Any impacts that do occur are likely to only occur in very close proximity (< 5 m) to airguns, the range at which they are likely to suffer mortality and tissue damage. These impacts are considered to be very small in both deep and shallow water Marine Invertebrates The impact on marine invertebrates is expected to be very similar to those on fish Indirect Impacts The proposed airgun operations are not expected to result in any permanent modification of habitats used by marine mammals or sea turtles, or to the food sources they use. The main impact issue associated with the proposed activities will be temporarily elevated noise levels and the associated direct effects on marine mammals and sea turtles, as discussed above. During the seismic study, only a small fraction of the available habitat would be exposed to seismic noise at any given time. Disturbance to marine fish and invertebrates would be short-term, and fish would return to their pre-disturbance behaviour once the seismic activity ceased. Thus, the proposed survey would have little impact on the abilities of marine mammals or sea turtles to feed in the area where seismic work is planned. 24 Version 1.0

242 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Some mysticetes feed on concentrations of zooplankton. A reaction by zooplankton to a seismic impulse would only be relevant to whales if it caused a concentration of zooplankton to scatter. Pressure changes of sufficient magnitude to cause that type of reaction would probably occur only very close to the source if at all. Impacts on zooplankton behaviour are predicted to be negligible, and consequently potential impacts on mysticetes due to loss of feed are not expected. 25 Version 1.0

243 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Glossary 1/3-octave-band Non-overlapping passbands that are one-third of an octave wide (where an octave is a doubling of frequency). Three adjacent 1/3-octave-bands make up one octave. One-third-octave-bands become wider with increasing frequency. Also see octave. 90%-energy time window The time interval over which the cumulative energy rises from 5% to 95% of the total pulse energy. This interval contains 90% of the total pulse energy. Symbol: T % root-mean-square sound pressure level (90% rms SPL) The root-mean-square sound pressure levels calculated over the 90%-energy time window of a pulse. Used only for pulsed sounds. A-weighting Frequency-selective weighting for human hearing in air that is derived from the inverse of the idealised 40-phon equal loudness hearing function across frequencies. attenuation The gradual loss of acoustic energy from absorption and scattering as sound propagates through a medium. audiogram A graph of hearing threshold level (sound pressure levels) as a function of frequency, which describes the hearing sensitivity of an animal over its hearing range. auditory weighting function (frequency-weighting function) Auditory weighting functions account for marine mammal hearing sensitivity. They are applied to sound measurements to emphasise frequencies that an animal hears well and de-emphasise frequencies they hear less well or not at all (Southall et al. 2007, Finneran and Jenkins 2012, NOAA 2013). azimuth A horizontal angle relative to a reference direction, which is often magnetic north or the direction of travel. In navigation it is also called bearing. bandwidth The range of frequencies over which a sound occurs. Broadband refers to a source that produces sound over a broad range of frequencies (e.g., seismic airguns, vessels) whereas narrowband sources produce sounds over a narrow frequency range (e.g., sonar) (ANSI/ASA S R2010). bar Unit of pressure equal to 100 kpa, which is approximately equal to the atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level. 1 bar is equal to 10 6 Pa or µpa. broadside direction Perpendicular to the travel direction of a source. Compare to endfire direction. cetacean Any animal in the order Cetacea. These are aquatic, mostly marine mammals and include whales, dolphins, and porpoises. compressional wave A mechanical vibration wave in which the direction of particle motion is parallel to the direction of propagation. Also called primary wave or P-wave. 26 Version 1.0

244 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna decibel (db) One-tenth of a bel. Unit of level when the base of the logarithm is the tenth root of ten, and the quantities concerned are proportional to power (ANSI S R2004). endfire direction Parallel to the travel direction of a source. Also see broadside direction. frequency The rate of oscillation of a periodic function measured in cycles-per-unit-time. The reciprocal of the period. Unit: hertz (Hz). Symbol: f. 1 Hz is equal to 1 cycle per second. functional hearing group Grouping of marine mammal species with similar estimated hearing ranges. Southall et al. (2007) proposed the following functional hearing groups: low-, mid-, and high-frequency cetaceans, pinnipeds in water, and pinnipeds in air. geoacoustic Relating to the acoustic properties of the seabed. hearing threshold The sound pressure level that is barely audible for a given individual in the absence of significant background noise during a specific percentage of experimental trials. hertz (Hz) A unit of frequency defined as one cycle per second. high-frequency cetacean The functional hearing group that represents odontocetes specialised for using high frequencies. impulsive sound Sound that is typically brief and intermittent with rapid (within a few seconds) rise time and decay back to ambient levels (NOAA 2013, ANSI S R2006). For example, seismic airguns and impact pile driving. low-frequency cetacean The functional hearing group that represents mysticetes (baleen whales). mid-frequency cetacean The functional hearing group that represents some odontocetes (dolphins, toothed whales, beaked whales, and bottlenose whales). M-weighting The process of band-pass filtering loud sounds to reduce the importance of inaudible or less-audible frequencies for broad classes of marine mammals. Generalized frequency weightings for various functional hearing groups of marine mammals, allowing for their functional bandwidths and appropriate in characterizing auditory effects of strong sounds (Southall et al. 2007). mysticete Mysticeti, a suborder of cetaceans, use their baleen plates, rather than teeth, to filter food from water. They are not known to echolocate, but use sound for communication. Members of this group include rorquals (Balaenopteridae), right whales (Balaenidae), and the grey whale (Eschrichtius robustus). non-impulsive sound Sound that is broadband, narrowband or tonal, brief or prolonged, continuous or intermittent, and typically does not have a high peak pressure with rapid rise time (typically only small fluctuations in decibel level) that impulsive signals have (ANSI/ASA S R2008). Marine vessels, aircraft, machinery, construction, and vibratory pile driving are examples. 27 Version 1.0

245 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna octave The interval between a sound and another sound with double or half the frequency. For example, one octave above 200 Hz is 400 Hz, and one octave below 200 Hz is 100 Hz. odontocete The presence of teeth, rather than baleen, characterises these whales. Members of the Odontoceti are a suborder of cetaceans, a group comprised of whales, dolphins, and porpoises. The toothed whales skulls are mostly asymmetric, an adaptation for their echolocation. This group includes sperm whales, killer whales, belugas, narwhals, dolphins, and porpoises. parabolic equation method A computationally-efficient solution to the acoustic wave equation that is used to model transmission loss. The parabolic equation approximation omits effects of back-scattered sound, simplifying the computation of transmission loss. The effect of back-scattered sound is negligible for most oceanacoustic propagation problems. peak sound pressure level (peak SPL) The maximum instantaneous sound pressure level, in a stated frequency band, within a stated period. Also called zero-to-peak sound pressure level. Unit: decibel (db). permanent threshold shift (PTS) A permanent loss of hearing sensitivity caused by excessive noise exposure. PTS is considered auditory injury. pinniped A common term used to describe all three groups that form the superfamily Pinnipedia: phocids (true seals or earless seals), otariids (eared seals or fur seals and sea lions), and walrus. point source A source that radiates sound as if from a single point (ANSI S R2004). power spectrum density The acoustic signal power per unit frequency as measured at a single frequency. Unit: µpa 2 /Hz, or µpa 2 s. power spectrum density level The decibel level (10log 10 ) of the power spectrum density, usually presented in 1 Hz bins. Unit: db re 1 µpa 2 /Hz. pressure, acoustic The deviation from the ambient hydrostatic pressure caused by a sound wave. Also called overpressure. Unit: pascal (Pa). Symbol: p. pulsed sound Discrete sounds with durations less than a few seconds. Sounds with longer durations are called continuous sounds. received level The sound level measured at a receiver. rms root-mean-square. rms sound pressure level (rms SPL) The root-mean-square average of the instantaneous sound pressure as measured over some specified time interval. For continuous sound, the time interval is one second. Also see sound pressure level (SPL) and 90% rms SPL. 28 Version 1.0

246 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna shear wave A mechanical vibration wave in which the direction of particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Also called secondary wave or S-wave. Shear waves propagate only in solid media, such as sediments or rock. Shear waves in the seabed can be converted to compressional waves in water at the water-seabed interface. signature Pressure signal generated by a source. sound A time-varying pressure disturbance generated by mechanical vibration waves travelling through a fluid medium such as air or water. sound exposure Time integral of squared, instantaneous frequency-weighted sound pressure over a stated time interval or event. Unit: pascal-squared second (Pa 2 s) (ANSI S R2004). sound exposure level (SEL) A measure related to the sound energy in one or more pulses. Unit: db re 1 µpa 2 s. sound field Region containing sound waves (ANSI S R2004). sound pressure level (SPL) The decibel ratio of the time-mean-square sound pressure, in a stated frequency band, to the square of the reference sound pressure (ANSI S R2004). For sound in water, the reference sound pressure is one micropascal (p 0 = 1 µpa) and the unit for SPL is db re 1 µpa: 2 2 SPL = 10log ( p p ) = 20 ( p p ) 10 0 log 10 Unless otherwise stated, SPL refers to the root-mean-square sound pressure level (rms SPL). sound speed profile The speed of sound in the water column as a function of depth below the water surface. source level (SL) The sound pressure level measured 1 meter from a theoretical point source that radiates the same total sound power as the actual source. Unit: db re 1 1 m. spectrum An acoustic signal represented in terms of its power (or energy) distribution versus frequency. temporary threshold shift (TTS) Temporary loss of hearing sensitivity caused by excessive noise exposure. transmission loss (TL) Also called propagation loss, this refers to the decibel reduction in sound level between two stated points that results from sound spreading away from an acoustic source subject to the influence of the surrounding environment. wavelength Distance over which a wave completes one oscillation cycle. Unit: meter (m). Symbol: λ Version 1.0

247 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Literature Cited [DFO] Fisheries and Oceans Canada Review of Scientific Information on Impacts of Seismic Sound on Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Turtles and Marine Mammals. Document Number Habitat Status Report 2004/002. Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat. [MMC] Marine Mammal Commission Marine mammals and noise: A sound approach to research and management. A Report to Congress from the Marine Mammal Commission. [NMFS] National Marine Fisheries Service (US) and [NOAA] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Small takes of marine mammals incidental to specified activities; offshore seismic activities in southern California: Notice of issuance of an incidental harassment authorization. Federal Register 60(200): [NMFS] National Marine Fisheries Service (US) Small takes of marine mammals incidental to specified activities; Marine seismic-reflection data collection in southern California. Federal Register 65(60): [NOAA] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and U.S. Department of Commerce Draft Guidance for Assessing the Effects of Anthropogenic Sound on Marine Mammals: Acoustic Threshold Levels for Onset of Permanent and Temporary Threshold Shifts. In: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S.D.o.C. 76 pp. [NRC] National Research Council Marine Mammal Populations and Ocean Noise: Determining when Ocean Noise Causes Biologically Significant Effects. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. [NSF] National Science Foundation (U.S.), U.S. Geological Survey, and [NOAA] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (U.S.) Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement/Overseas. Environmental Impact Statement for Marine Seismic Research Funded by the National Science Foundation or Conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey. National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA. Aguilar Soto, N., M. Johnson, P.T. Madsen, P.L. Tyack, A. Bocconcelli, and J. Fabrizio Borsani Does intense ship noise disrupt foraging in deep-diving Cuvier's beaked whales (Ziphius cavirostris)? Marine Mammal Science 22(3): ANSI S R2006. American National Standard Methods for Measurements of Impulse Noise. American National Standards Institute, New York. ANSI S R2004. American National Standard Acoustical Terminology. American National Standards Institute, New York. ANSI/ASA S R2010. American National Standard Measurement of Sound Pressure Levels in Air. American National Standards Institute and Acoustical Society of America, New York. ANSI/ASA S R2008. American National Standard Bioacoustical Terminology. American National Standards Institute and Acoustical Society of America, New York. Arveson, P.T. and D.J. Vendittis Radiated noise characteristics of a modern cargo ship. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 107(1): Au, W.W.L. and M.C. Hastings Principles of Marine Bioacoustics. Springer Barkaszi, M., M. Butler, R. Compton, A. Unietis, and B. Bennet Seismic survey mitigation measures and marine mammal observer reports. US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA OCS Study BOEM. Volume 15. Document Number pp. Barlow, J Harbor porpoise, Phocoena phocoena, abundance estimation for California, Oregon, and Washington. I: Ship surveys. Fishery Bulletin 86: Blackwell, S.B., C.S. Nations, T.L. McDonald, A.M. Thode, D. Mathias, K.H. Kim, C.R. Greene, Jr., and A.M. Macrander Effects of airgun sounds on bowhead whale calling rates: evidence for two behavioral thresholds. PLoS ONE 10(6): e Brandt, M.J., A. Diederichs, K. Betke, and G. Nehls Responses of harbour porpoises to pile driving at the Horns Rev II offshore wind farm in the Danish North Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series 421: Buckstaff, K.C Effects of watercraft noise on the acoustic behavior of bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, in Sarasota Bay, Florida. Marine Mammal Science 20(4): Version 1.0

248 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Burdic, W.S Underwater acoustic system analysis. 1st edition. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ Carlson, T.J. and G.E. Johnson Columbia River Channel improvement project rock removal blasting: monitoring plan. Final Plan Report edition. Volume 6. Document Number PNNL Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA. Castellote, M., C.W. Clark, and M.O. Lammers Acoustic and behavioural changes by fin whales (Balaenaptera physalus) in response to shipping and airgun noise. Biological Conservation 147: Cook, M.L.H Behavioral and auditory evoked potential (AEP) hearing measurements in odontocete cetaceans. PhD Thesis. University of South Florida, St. Petersburg. 123 pp. Dähne, M., A. Gilles, K. Lucke, V. Peschko, S. Adler, K. Krügel, J. Sundermeyer, and U. Siebert Effects of pile-driving on harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) at the first offshore wind farm in Germany. Environmental Research Letters 8(2): Di Iorio, L. and C.W. Clark Exposure to seismic survey alters blue whale acoustic communication. Biology Letters 6(1): Discovery of Sound in the Sea (DOSITS) University of Rhode Island. (Accessed 10 June 2015). Engås, A., S. Løkkeborg, E. Ona, and A.V. Soldal Effects of seismic shooting on local abundance and catch rates of cod (Gadus morhua) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 53(10): Engås, A. and S. Løkkeborg Effects of seismic shooting and vessel-generated noise on fish behaviour and catch rates. Bioacoustics 12(2-3): Finneran, J.J., C.E. Schlundt, R. Dear, D.A. Carder, and S.H. Ridgway Temporary shift in masked hearing thresholds in odontocetes after exposure to single underwater impulses from a seismic watergun. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 111(6): Finneran, J.J., D.A. Carder, C.E. Schlundt, and S.H. Ridgway Temporary threshold shift in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) exposed to mid-frequency tones. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 119(4): Finneran, J.J. and A.K. Jenkins Criteria and thresholds for U.S. Navy acoustic and explosive effects analysis. SPAWAR Systems Center Pacific, San Diego, California. Fletcher, J.L. and R.G. Busnel Effects of noise on wildlife. Academic Press, New York. Foote, A.D., R.W. Osborne, and A. Rus Hoelzel Whale-call response to masking boat noise. Nature 428: 910. Gentry, R., A. Bowles, W. Ellison, J. Finneran, C.R. Greene, Jr., D. Kastak, D. Ketten, J. Miller, P. Nachtigall, et al Noise exposure criteria. Presentation to the Second Plenary Meeting of the Advisory Committee on Acoustic Impacts on Marine Animals, Arlington, VA. Gordon, J., D. Gillespie, J. Potter, A. Frantzis, M.P. Simmonds, R. Swift, and D. Thompson A review of the effects of seismic surveys on marine mammals. Marine Technology Society Journal 37(4): Greene, C.R., Jr. and W.J. Richardson Characteristics of marine seismic survey sounds in the Beaufort Sea. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 83(6): Harland, E.J. and S.D. Richards SEA 7 Technical report: Underwater ambient noise (Nontechnical summary). QINETIQ/06/ QinetiQ. Harris, C.M Handbook of acoustical measurements and noise control. 3rd edition. Acoustical Society of America, Huntington, NY. Hatch, L.T. and A.J. Wright A brief review of anthropogenic sound in the oceans. International Journal of Comparative Psychology 20: Hatch, L.T., C.W. Clark, S.M. Van Parijs, A.S. Frankel, and D.W. Ponirakis Quantifying loss of acoustic communication space for right whales in and around a U.S. National Marine Sanctuary. Conservation Biology 26(5): Heathershaw, A.D., P.D. Ward, and A.M. David The Environmental Impact of Underwater Sound. In Second Symposium on Underwater Bio-sonar and Bioacoustic Systems. Loughborough University, Institute of Acoustics, St Albans, Hertfordshire, UK. pp Hildebrand, J.A Anthropogenic and natural sources of ambient noise in the ocean. Marine Ecology Progress Series 395: Version 1.0

249 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Holt, M.M., D.P. Noren, V. Veirs, C.K. Emmons, and S. Veirs Speaking up: Killer whales (Orcinus orca) increase their call amplitude in response to vessel noise. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 125(1): EL27-EL32. Hotchkin, C. and S. Parks The Lombard effect and other noise induced vocal modifications: insight from mammalian communication systems. Biological Reviews 88(4): IWC Report of the Scientific Committee. Annex K. Report of the Standing Working Group on Environmental Concerns. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management (Suppl) 9: Jochens, A.E., D. Biggs, K. Benoit-Bird, D. Engelhaupt, J. Gordon, C. Hu, N. Jaquet, and M. Johnson Sperm Whale Seismic Study in the Gulf of Mexico: Synthesis Report. Document Number OCS Study MMS US Dept. of Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. 341 pp. Kastak, D., B.L. Southall, R.J. Schusterman, and C.R. Kastak Underwater temporary threshold shift in pinnipeds: Effects of noise level and duration. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 118(5): <Go to ISI>:// Liberman, M Noise-induced hearing loss: permanent vs. temporary threshold shifts and the effects of hair-cell vs. neuronal degeneration. In Popper AN and H. AD (eds.). The effects of noise on aquatic life, II. Springer Science + Business Media, New York. pp Løkkeborg, S., E. Ona, A. Vold, and A. Salthaug. 2012a. Effects of Sounds From Seismic Air Guns on Fish Behavior and Catch Rates. (Chapter 95) In Popper, A. and A. Hawkins (eds.). The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life. Volume 730. Springer New York. pp Translated from English. Løkkeborg, S., E. Ona, A. Vold, and A. Salthaug. 2012b. Sounds from seismic air guns: gear- and species-specific effects on catch rates and fish distribution. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 69(8): Lucke, K., U. Siebert, P. Lepper, A., and M.-A. Blanchet Temporary shift in masked hearing thresholds in a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) after exposure to seismic airgun stimuli. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 125(6): MacGillivray, A.O Acoustic Modelling Study of Seismic Airgun Noise in Queen Charlotte Basin. M. Sc. Thesis. University of Victoria, Victoria, BC. McCauley, R.D., M. Jenner, C. Jenner, K. McCabe, and J. Murdoch The response of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) to offshore seismic survey noise: Preliminary results of observations about a working seismic vessel and experimental exposures. Australian Petroleum Production Exploration Association (APPEA) Journal 38(1): McCauley, R.D., J. Fewtrell, A.J. Duncan, C. Jenner, M.-N. Jenner, J.D. Penrose, R.I.T. Prince, A. Adihyta, J. Murdoch, et al Marine seismic surveys: A study of environmental implications. Australian Petroleum Production Exploration Association (APPEA) Journal 40: McCauley, R.D., J. Fewtrell, and A.N. Popper High intensity anthropogenic sound damages fish ears. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 113: McDonald, M.A., J.A. Hildebrand, and S.C. Webb Blue and fin whales observed on a seafloor array in the Northeast Pacific. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 98(2): McDonald, M.A., J.A. Hildebrand, S.M. Wiggins, and D. Ross A 50 year comparison of ambient ocean noise near San Clemente Island: a bathymetrically complex coastal region off southern California. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 124: Melcon, M.L., A.J. Cummins, S.M. Kerosky, L.K. Roche, S.M. Wiggins, and J.A. Hildebrand Blue whales respond to anthropogenic noise. PLoS ONE 7(2): Miller, I. and E. Cripps Three dimensional marine seismic survey has no measurable effect on species richness or abundance of a coral reef associated fish community. Marine Pollution Bulletin 77(1): Miller, P.J.O., N. Biassoni, A. Samuels, and P.L. Tyack Whale songs lengthen in response to sonar. Nature 405(6789): Moein, S.E., J.A. Musick, J.A. Keinath, D.E. Barnard, M.L. Lenhardt, and R. George Evaluation of Seismic Sources for Repelling Sea Turtles from Hopper Dredges, in Sea Turtle Research Program: Summary Report. In: Hales, L.Z. (ed.). Report from U.S. Army Engineer Division, South Atlantic, Atlanta GA, and U.S. Naval Submarine Base, Kings Bay GA. Technical Report CERC pp. 32 Version 1.0

250 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Nedwell, J.R. and A.W. Turnpenny The use of a generic frequency weighting scale in estimating environmental effect. Workshop on Seismics and Marine Mammals th June 1998, London, U.K. Nedwell, J.R., A.W.H. Turnpenny, J. Lovell, S.J. Parvin, R. Workman, and J.A.L. Spinks A validation of the db ht as a measure of the behavioural and auditory effects of underwater noise. Report No. 534R1231 prepared by Subacoustech Ltd. for the UK Department of Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform under Project No. RDCZ/011/ Nieukirk, S.L., K.M. Stafford, D.K. Mellinger, R.P. Dziak, and C.G. Fox Low-frequency whale and seismic airgun sounds recorded in the mid-atlantic Ocean. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 115(4): Nowacek, D., M. Johnson, and P.L. Tyack North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) ignore ships but respond to alarm stimuli. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 271: Nowacek, D.P., L.H. Thorne, D.W. Johnston, and P.L. Tyack Responses of cetaceans to anthropogenic noise. Mammal Review 37(2): O'Hara, J. and J.R. Wilcox Avoidance responses of loggerhead turtles, Caretta caretta, to low frequency sound. Copeia 2: Parks, S.E., C.W. Clark, and P.L. Tyack Short-and long-term changes in right whale calling behavior: The potential effects of noise on acoustic communication. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 122(6): Payne, R. and D. Webb Orientation by means of long range acoustic signaling in baleen whales. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 188: Pirotta, E., R. Milor, N. Quick, D. Moretti, N. Di Marzio, P. Tyack, I. Boyd, and G. Hastie Vessel noise affects beaked whale behavior: Results of a dedicated acoustic response study. PLoS ONE 7(8): e g004. Polacheck, T. and L. Thorpe The swimming direction of harbor porpoise in relationship to a survey vessel. Report for the International Whaling Commission 40: Popper, A.N., M. Salmon, and K.W. Horch Acoustic detection and communication by decapod crustaceans. Journal of Comparative Physiology A: Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology 187(2): Popper, A.N. and M.C. Hastings The effects of anthropogenic sources of sound on fishes. Journal of Fish Biology 75(3): Popper, A.N., A.D. Hawkins, R.R. Fay, D.A. Mann, S. Bartol, T.J. Carlson, S. Coombs, W.T. Ellison, R.L. Gentry, et al Sound Exposure Guidelines for Fishes and Sea Turtles: A Technical Report prepared by ANSI-Accredited Standards Committee S3/SC1 and registered with ANSI. SpringerBriefs in Oceanography, vol. ASA S3/SC1.4 TR ASA Press. 87 pp. Purser, J. and A.N. Radford Acoustic noise induces attention shifts and reduces foraging performance in three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). PLoS ONE 6(2): e g005. Rankin, S. and W.E. Evans Effect of low-frequency seismic exploration signals on the cetaceans of the Gulf of Mexico. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 103(5): Rendell, L. and J. Gordon Vocal Response of Long Finned Pilot Whales (Globicephala melas) to Military Sonar in the Ligurian Sea. Marine Mammal Science 15(1): Richardson, W.J., C.R. Greene, Jr., C.I. Malme, and D.H. Thomson Marine Mammals and Noise. Academic Press, San Diego, California Richardson, W.J., G.W. Miller, and C.R. Greene, Jr Displacement of migrating bowhead whales by sounds from seismic surveys in shallow waters of the Beaufort Sea. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 106(4): Ridgway, S. and D. Carder Hearing deficits measured in some Tursiops truncatus, and discovery of a deaf/mute dolphin. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 101(1): Risch, D., P.J. Corkeron, W.T. Ellison, and S.M. Van Parijs Changes in humpback whale song occurrence in response to an acoustic source 200 km away. PLoS ONE 7(1): e g Version 1.0

251 JASCO APPLIED SCIENCES Impacts of Seismic Survey Noise on Marine Fauna Schlundt, C.E., J.J. Finneran, D.A. Carder, and S.H. Ridgway Temporary shift in masked hearing thresholds (MTTS) of bottlenose dolphins and white whales after exposure to intense tones. Journal of Acoustical Society of America 107: Slabbekoorn, H., N. Bouton, I. van Opzeeland, A. Coers, C. ten Cate, and A.N. Popper A noisy spring: the impact of globally rising underwater sound levels on fish. Trends in ecology & evolution (Personal edition) 25(7): Slotte, A., K. Hansen, J. Dalen, and E. Ona Acoustic mapping of pelagic fish distribution and abundance in relation to a seismic shooting area off the Norwegian west coast. Fisheries Research 67(2): Smith, M.E., A.B. Coffin, D.L. Miller, and A.N. Popper Anatomical and functional recovery of the goldfish (Carassius auratus) ear following noise exposure. Journal of Experimental Biology 209(21): Southall, B.L., A.E. Bowles, W.T. Ellison, J.J. Finneran, R.L. Gentry, C.R. Greene, Jr., D. Kastak, D.R. Ketten, J.H. Miller, et al Marine mammal noise exposure criteria: Initial scientific recommendations. Aquatic Mammals 33(4): Stone, C.J The effects of seismic activity on marine mammals in UK waters, Document Number 323. Joint Nature Conservation Committee. 78 pp. Stone, C.J. and M.L. Tasker The effects of seismic airguns on cetaceans in UK waters. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 8(3): 255. Tyack, P.L Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. Journal of Mammalogy 89(3): Van Parijs, S.M. and P.J. Corkeron Boat traffic affects the acoustic behaviour of Pacific humpback dolphins, Sousa chinensis. Marine Mammal Science 17(4): Weilgart, L.S The impacts of anthropogenic ocean noise on cetaceans and implications for management. Canadian Journal of Zoology 85: Wood, J., B.L. Southall, and D.J. Tollit PG&E offshore 3 D Seismic Survey Project EIR-Marine Mammal Technical Draft Report. SMRU Ltd. Woodside Impacts of Seismic Airgun Noise on Fish Pathology, Physiology and Hearing Sensitivity: A Coral Reef Case Study. Brose LNG Development -- Maxima 3D MSS Monitoring Program, Information Sheet 2. Business/Browse/Pages/default.aspx. Wyatt, R Review of Existing Data on Underwater Sounds Produced by the Oil and Gas Industry, Issue 1. Report prepared by Seiche Measurements Limited Ref S186 for OGP Joint Industry Program (JIP) on Sound and Marine Life. 98 pp. Zelick, R., D. Mann, and A.N. Popper Acoustic communication in fishes and frogs. In Fay, R.R. and A.N. Popper (eds.). Comparative Hearing: Fish and Amphibians Springer-Verlag, New York. pp Version 1.0

252 APPENDIX D STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT PLAN

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259 Appendix 2: Stakeholder Attendance List Stakeholder Group Title Name Position Organisation / Village Union Government Dr. San Oo Director General Environmental Conservation Department (ECD), MOECAF Union Government U Hla Maung Thein Deputy Director General, Environmental Conservation Department Union Government U Soe Myint Director General Department of Fisheries Union Government Dr. Tun Thein Assistant Director Department of Fisheries Union Government Daw Myat Khine Mar Assistant Director Department of Fisheries Regional Government H.E U Thein Aung Chief Minister General Administrative Department, Ayeyarwady Region Regional Government Lt. Commander Ko Ko Naing Regional Port Officer Regional Port, Ayeyarwady Region Regional Government U Thein Win Director Fishery Department, Ayeyarwady Region Regional Government U Wai Oo Director (Administration) Ministry of Energy, MOGE Regional Government U Name not provided Regional Minister Ministry of Planning and Commerce, Ayeyarwady Region Regional Government U Name not provided Regional Minister Ministry of Electricity and Industries, Ayeyarwady Region Regional Government U Than Htay Director Environmental Conservation Department, MOECAF Regional Government U Htun Kyaw Kyaw Assistant Director Government Office, Ayeyarwady Township U U Htun Wai Township Administrator - Nga Pu Taw Township U Nay Aung Hlaing Township Administrator - Pathein Regional Government Regional Government

260 Civil Society U Han Tun Chief Executive Officer Myanmar Fisheries Federation Civil Society U Kyaw Yin Executive Officer Myanmar Fisheries Federation Civil Society Dr. Tint Swe Vice Chairman/Fishery Scientist Civil Society U Tun Yee Environmentalist/Marine Biologist Marine Science Association Myanmar Marine Science Association Myanmar Civil Society U Tint Tun Not Provided Marine Science Association, Myanmar Civil Society U Maung Maung Soe, Chairman Myanmar Marine Fisheries Association Civil Society U Maung Maung Vice-Chairman Myanmar Marine Fisheries Association - Ayeyarwady Branch Civil Society U Win Cho Secretary Myanmar Marine Fisheries Association - Ayeyarwady Branch Civil Society U Kyaw Myint Aung Joint-Secretary Myanmar Marine Fisheries Association - Ayeyarwady Branch Civil Society U Aung Lwin Chairman - Shwe Thaung Yan Township Myanmar Marine Fisheries Association - Ayeyarwady Branch Civil Society U Khin Maung Win Office Superintendent Myanmar Marine Fisheries Association - Ayeyarwady Branch Civil Society Mr Mr. Frank Momberg Myanmar Program Director Fauna and Flora International Civil Society Ms Ms. Gurveena Ghataure FFI (UK) Fauna and Flora International Civil Society Mr. Colin M. Poole Director, WCS Regional Conservation Hub, Singapore Wildlife Conservation Society, Myanmar

261 Civil Society U U Than Myint Country Program Director Wildlife Conservation Society, Myanmar Civil Society Mr Mr. Robert Tizard Technical Advisor Wildlife Conservation Society, Myanmar Civil Society Mr Mr. Parnell Richard Senior Marine Conservation Specialist Civil Society U U Mya Than Tun Freshwater and Marine Conservation Coordinator Wildlife Conservation Society, Myanmar Wildlife Conservation Society, Myanmar Civil Society Ms Vicky Bowman Director Myanmar Centre for Responsible Business Civil Society Ms Tania Miorin Country Representative Istituto Oikos Civil Society Mr Paul Rogers Tourism Consultant NA

262 Appendix 3: Photos of Stakeholder Consultation Meeting with ECD, MOECAF, 23/03/2015 Meeting with Ayeyarwady Regional Government, 18/03/2015

263 Meeting with Myanmar Fisheries Federation Ayeyrwaddy Region, 30/04/2015

264 Appendix 4: Summary of questions and responses from consultation, 29/01/2015 to 24/06/2015 Questions and Responses Question: What vessel will be used for the seismic survey? RG Response: The vessel to be used is yet to be determined Question: How far will the nearest seismic line be from the shoreline? RG Response: The seismic study will be carried out at a distance of 15km (10 miles) from the shoreline, in a water depth of about 50m, and this does not interfere with the local fishing activities. Question: Are you 1 working together with Woodside? MFF-A Response: Yes we work for Woodside on this project. Woodside has engaged E Guard to conduct environmental studies for the project. E Guard is a company that works on IEE/EIA/SIA projects. Question: Is there only one vessel involved in the survey? MFF-A Response: During the survey there will be not only one survey vessel (the seismic survey ship) conducting the survey activities. There will be at least 2-3 additional chaser boats and a supply boat. The purpose of the chaser boats are to warn other vessels not to enter the restricted zone and the supply boat is for supplying water/ food and diesel to the ship. Question: Have you tried the survey already? MFF-A Response: The survey has not yet been carried out. RG: Regional Government; MFF-A Myanmar Fishing Federation Ayeyarwady 1 Referring to EGuard

265 Appendix 5: Detailed Comments from Stakeholders, 29/01/2015 to 24/06/2015 Category Issue Details of Issue Process Follow-up consultation It was requested that Woodside: Return to the Myanmar Marine Fisheries Federation to provide a PowerPoint presentation about the project MFF Conduct follow-up consultation with the Ayeyarwady Region Fisheries Federation and Myanmar Marine Fisheries Federation MFF The Myanmar Fisheries Federation can provide assistance to the project through the Vice President and other officers in the Pathein branch MFF Regulations Woodside should engage in detail with Government authorities RG The following advice was provided: The project proposal should be submitted to MOECAF via MOGE ECD It is not necessary to submit a scoping report ECD An IEE report will be required unless there are species hotspots in the area ECD The IEE report should be submitted to MOGE and a copy of the report can be provided to ECD in advance for their review. MOGE will send an official copy to MOECAF, who will then forward the report to the ECD ECD The executive summary of the IEE is required to be translated into Myanmar language ECD All stakeholder meeting events are to be advertised in the newspaper ECD The Environmental Conservation Rules (2014) have been formally adopted and the EIA Procedures are expected to be gazetted by March The National Environmental Quality (Emission) Guidelines (draft) were presented for public consultation on 6th January 2015 ECD The project activities are beyond the authority of the Regional Government. The Regional Government will assist with security and administration RG Information and assistance Information and assistance can be gained from: Marine Science Association of Myanmar MSAM Myanmar Fisheries Federation (for fisheries information) MSAM MOECAF deputies ECD The Environmental Conservation Department (during report drafting) ECD The Notice to Mariners has been done in the past free of charge by the Fisheries Department. In the past other companies have also posted notices and photographs of seismic vessels (as posters) at the jetties of fish distribution areas MMFA Project Previous projects Based on experiences from previous oil and gas seismic studies, there were no problems with the seismic survey activities MMFA Environment Sargassam (a local species of seaweed for turtles) should be conserved for the survival of endangered turtles MSAM

266 Category Issue Details of Issue Take note of the naval base near mouth of Ayeyarwady delta Negative Impacts Positive Impacts Project activities Concerns regarding anticipated impacts Concerns regarding existing impacts Expectations regarding anticipated benefits Expectations regarding existing benefits MFF It is important to verify baseline data with local fishing representatives ECD Environmental conservation is important and the proponent should take responsibility for this RG The following questions were asked: Where will the drilling equipment come from? RG How far from shore will the nearest seismic line be? RG Is there only one vessel involved in the survey? MFF-A Environmental impacts are of greater concern to regional authorities RG There should be no interference with fishing activities RG Local people may not understand the impacts and may be afraid of the activities RG Impacts to air and water - water pollution is more of a concern due to the fluids used for drilling activities RG Restricted zones are not a problem when fish stocks are low. During the period when fish stocks are high and if we are not allowed to enter these areas, there will be a great loss MFF-A There is a concern that Hilsa fish would move over to Bangladesh due to the sound waves MFF-A Provide local people, especially people from Ngaputaw, Tharbaung and Ngayokekaung, with a clear explanation of the environmental impacts, project activities and any consequences of drilling activities RG Foreign vessels are not permitted to fish anymore in the study area due to concerns about poor catch both offshore as well as inshore MSAM Engagement at Ngayokekaung should be conducted tactfully due to lack of transparency concerns and protests that occurred regarding the Coal-fired Power Plant (proposed by Tata) RG The project should consider the need for community development ECD No comments received MFF: Myanmar Fisheries Federation; Myanmar Marine Fisheries Association: MMFA; ECD: Environmental Conservation Department; MSAM: Marine Science Association of Myanmar; RG: Regional Government; L: Local Community; MFF-A Myanmar Fishing federation Ayeyarwady

267 Appendix 5: Public comments on the IEE This will be inserted once the public comment period is complete.

268 Appendix 6: Stakeholder Consultation Materials 1. Woodside in Myanmar Fact Sheet

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270 2. Presentation Village tract

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274 3. Poster Seismic Survey Diagram

275 4. Poster Map of the Survey Areas

276 5. Public Notifications The New Global Light of Myanmar (27/03/2015) Kaymone The Mirror (28/03/2015) Myanmar Alin Daily (28/03/2015)