HEATING, COOLING, LIGHTING:

Transcription

1 THIRD EDITION HEATING, COOLING, LIGHTING: Sustainable Design Methods for Architects Norbert Lechner UKHTiNifB WILEY John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

2 CONTENTS FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION xiii FOREWORD TO THE THIRD EDITION xv PREFACE xvii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix 1. HEATING, COOLING, AND LIGHTING AS FORM-GIVERS IN ARCHITECTURE 1.1 Introduction Vernacular and Regional Architecture 1.3 Formal Architecture The Architectural Approach Dynamic versus Static Buildings Passive Survivability Energy and Architecture Architecture and Heating, Cooling, and Lighting Conclusion 12 l 2. SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 2.1 Easter Island: Learning from the Past Sustainable Design Reuse, Recycle, and Regenerate by Design 2.4 The Green Movement Population and Sustainsbilily Growth Exponential Growth The Amoeba Analogy Supply versus Efficiency Sustainable-Design Issues Climate Change The Global Greenhouse The Ozone Hole Efficiency Energy Sources Ancient Greece: A Historical Example Nonrenewable Energy Sources Renewable Energy Sources Hydrogen Conclusion 38 BASIC PRINCIPLES Introduction 42 Heat 42 Sensible Heat 42 Latent Heat 43 Evaporative Cooling 43 Convection 44 Transport 44 Energy-Transfer Mediums 45 Radiation 45 Greenhouse Effect 46 Equilibrium Temperature of a Surface 47 Mean Radiant Temperature 48 Heat Flow 48 Heat Sink 49 Heat Capacity 49 Thermal Resistance 50 Heat-Flow Coefficient 50 Time Lag 50 > Insulating Effect of Mass 51 Energy Conversion 51 : Combined Heat and Power 52 Fuel Cells 52 ' < fi Embodied Energy 53 ' '" ''""'' Conclusion 54 t»?v.- THERMAL COMFORT Biological Machine 56 Thermal Barriers 57 Metabolic Rate 59 Thermal Conditions of the Environment 60 The Psychrometric Chart 60 Dew Point and Wet-Bulb Temperatures 62 Heat Content of Air 63 Thermal Comfort 64 VII

3 VIII CONTENTS 4.9 Shifting of the Comfort Zone Clothing and Comfort Strategies Conclusion CLIMATE Introduction Climate Microclimate 75 ' ^ 5.4 Climatic Anomalies 77 ^ "" 5.5 Climate Regions of the United States Explanations of the Climatic Data Tables 5.7 Additional Climate Information Climate Information for Other Countries Climate Data Tables 88 ^ 5.9 Design Strategies 122 IX SOLAR GEOMETRY...,., PASSIVE SOLAR Introduction 132 r.oo&rc*:i The Sun 132 Elliptical Orbit 132 Tilt of the Earth's Axis 133 i«) Consequences of the Altitude Angle Winter 135 The Sun Revolves Around the Earth! Sky Dome r ;».t t.t m.i Determining Altitude and Azimuth Angles 136 Solar Time 137 Horizontal Sun-Path Diagrams 137 Vertical Sun-Path Diagrams 139 Sun-Path Models 141 Solar Site-Evaluation Tools 142 Heliodons 142 Sundials for Model Testing 143 Conceptually Clear Heliodons 145 Conclusion 145 Ml, History i.^g Solar in America 148.n Solar Hemicycle 150 Latest Rediscovery of Passive Solar Passive Solar 152 Direct-Gain Systems 153 OK.t i.i * Design Guidelines for -^.... Direct-Gain Systems Example Trombe Wall Systems Design Guidelines for Trombe Wall Systems Example Sunspaces Balcomb House Sunspace Design Guidelines Comparison of the Three Main Passive Heating Systems General Considerations for Passive Solar Systems Heat-Storage Materials Other Passive Heating Systems Conclusion 174 PHOTOVOLTAICS AND ACTIVE SOLAR , o o.iy in Introduction 178 The Almost Ideal Energy Source 178 History of PV 178 The PV Cell 180 Types of PV Systems 181 Balance of System Equipment 182 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics 182 Orientation and Tilt 184 Roofs Clad with PV 185 Facades Clad with PV 186 Glazing and PV 186 PV Shading Devices 188 PV: Part of the Second Tier 188 Sizing a PV System 189 Finding the PV Array Size for a Stand-Alone Building by the Short Calculation Method 190 Design Guidelines 191 The Promise of PV 192 The Cost Effectiveness of PV and Active Solar Applications 192 Active Solar Swimming- Pool Heating 195 Solar Hot-Water Systems 195 Solar Hot-Air Collectors 197 Designing an Active Solar System 198 Active/Passive Solar Systems 200 Preheating of Ventilation Air 201 The Future of Active Solar 204 Conclusion iiv

4 CONTENTS IX SHADING AND LIGHT COLORS H istory of Shading Shading 213 ^. 9.3 Fixed Exterior Shading Devices 217. i.,- 9.4 Movable Shading Devices Shading Periods of the Year Horizontal Overhangs Design of Horizontal t ji.sl * Overhangs Basic Method Shading Design for South Windows Design Guidelines for Fixed South Overhangs Design Guidelines for Movable : South Overhangs 232 ' ' ; 9.11 Shading for East and West Windows Design of East and West Horizontal Overhangs 235 l; 7l ' ' 9.13 Design of Slanted Vertical Fins Design of Fins on North Windows Design Guidelines for Eggcrate Shading Devices Special Shading Strategies Shading Outdoor Spaces 241 r "' r ' 9.18 Using Physical Models for Shading Design Glazing as the Shading Element Interior Shading Devices 249?, ; 9.21 Shading Coefficient and Solar,,',j :,(>.'}' Heat-Gain Coefficient Reflection from Roofs and Walls Conclusion 253 PASSIVE COOLING 257 ; : Introduction to Cooling 258 ' Historical and Indigenous Use of Passive Cooling 258 A Passive Cooling Systems 267 **' Comfort Ventilation versus Night-Flush Cooling 267 Basic Principles of Air Flow 267 Air Flow Through Buildings 271 Example of Ventilation Design 278 Comfort Ventilation 281 Night-Flush Cooling Radiant Cooling Evaporative Cooling Cool Towers Earth Cooling Dehumidification with a Desiccant Conclusion SITE DESIGN, COMMUNITY PLANNING, AND LANDSCAPING 11.1 Introduction 296 ; - ' E 11.2 Site Selection 299 " :: 11.3 Solar Access Shadow Patterns Site Planning 308 r r 11.6 Solar Zoning Physical Models Wind and Site Design Plants and Vegetation Green Roofs Lawns Landscaping Community Design Cooling Our Communities Conclusion LIGHTING " t Introduction 344 Light 346!^ Reflectance/Transmittance 349 Color 350 Vision 353 Perception 354 ;A i Performance of a Visual Task 357 Characteristics of the Visual Task 358 Illumination Level 359 Brightness Ratios 361 Glare 362 '**' *"""' J ' Equivalent Spherical Illumination 366 Activity Needs 367 Biological Needs 370 I*"*" 1 " Light and Health 373 via The Poetry of Light 373 r. Rules for Lighting Design 374 Career Possibilities 375 Conclusion 375 XA 295

5 X CONTENTS 13. DAYLIGHTING 13.1 History of Daylighting Why Daylighting? The Nature of Daylight Conceptual Model Illumination and the Daylight Factor 13.6 Light without Heat? Cool Daylight 392!A : \\ 13.8 Goals of Daylighting Basic Daylighting Strategies Basic Window Strategies Advanced Window Strategies 401 li Window Glazing Materials Top Lighting 407 "' *-" Skylight Strategies Clerestories, Monitors, and Light Scoops Special Daylighting Techniques Translucent Walls and Roofs 422 ft ( Electric Lighting as a Supplement.... to Daylighting Physical Modeling Guidelines for Daylighting Conclusion si.n '.i.ll I I I ELECTRIC LIGHTING 433 ' nti 14.1 History of Light Sources Light Sources Incandescent and Halogen Lamps Discharge Lamps Fluorescent Lamps 439 t.xj 14.6 High Intensity Discharge Lamps., (Mercury, Metal Halide, and High Pressure Sodium) Comparison of the Major a- Lighting Sources Solid State Lighting Luminaires Lenses, Diffusers, and Baffles Lighting Systems Remote-Source Lighting Systems Visualizing Light Distribution Architectural Lighting Outdoor Lighting Emergency Lighting Controls Maintenance 458 L' Rules for Energy-Efficient Electric Lighting Design Conclusion THE THERMAL ENVELOPE; KEEPING WARM AND STAYING COOL Background 462..,, 15.2 Heat Loss 463 lfl r v 15.3 Heat Gain Solar Reflectivity (Albedo) Compactness, Exposed Area, and Thermal Planning Insulation Materials The Thermal Envelope Heat Bridges 482, f ; Hi Windows Movable Insulation Insulating Effect from Thermal Mass Earth Sheltering Infiltration and Ventilation Moisture Control Radon Appliances Conclusion MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT FOR HEATING AND COOLING 16.1 Introduction Heating Thermal Zones Heating Systems Electric Heating Hot-Water (Hydronic) Heating Hot-Air Systems Cooling Refrigeration Cycles Heat Pumps Geo-Exchange Cooling Systems Air Conditioning for Small Buildings Air Conditioning for Large Multistory Buildings Design Guidelines for Mechanical Systems Air Supply (Ducts and Diffusers)

6 CONTENTS XI Ventilation 543, Energy-Efficient Ventilation Systems Air Filtration and Odor Removal Special Systems Integrated and Exposed Mechanical Equipment Conclusion CASE STUDIES 17.1 Introduction The Real Goods Solar Living Center 17.3 The Urban Villa The Emerald People's Utility District Headquarters Colorado Mountain College Gregory Bateson Building Commerzbank Phoenix Central Library 582 APPENDIX A HORIZONTAL SUN-PATH DIAGRAMS APPENDIX B 556 5S5 587 VERTICAL SUN-PATH DIAGRAMS 599 APPENDIX F SUN-PATH MODELS F.I Introduction 631 F.2 Directions for Constructing a Sun-Path Model 631 APPENDIX G COMPUTER SOFTWARE USEFUL FOR THE SCHEMATIC DESIGN STAGE ;; - i ' ' i-j v.', G.I Introduction 641 >/',;- G.2 Ecotect 641, v. G.3 Energy Scheming ;.V^v-A G.4 Energy G.5 UCLA Energy Design Tools 642 APPENDIX H SITE EVALUATION TOOLS 645 H. 1 Introduction 64 5 H.2 The Solar Pathfinder 645 H.3 The Suneye 645 H.4 The Sun Locator 646 H.5 Do-it-Yourself Solar Site Evaluator 646 APPENDIX HELIODONS 653 APPENDIX C SOLAR ALTITUDE AND AZIMUTH ANGLES 611 APPENDIX D METH0D5 FOR ESTIMATING THE HEIGHT OF TREES, BUILDINGS, ETC 617 D.I Proportional-Shadow Method 617 D.2 Similar-Triangle Method 617 D.3 45 Right-Triangle Method 618 D.4 Trigonometric Method 618 D.5 Tools for Measuring Vertical Angles Introduction The Sun Simulator Heliodon The Sun Emulator Heliodon The Tabletop Heliodon The Bowling Ball Heliodon Other Sources of Heliodons 659 APPENDIX J EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES IN ENERGY-CONSCIOUS DESIGN APPENDIX K RESOURCES APPENDIX E SUNDIALS 621 K.1 Books 663 K.2 lournals 663 K.3 Videos 663 xm

7 XII CONTENTS K.4 CD-ROMs 664 K.5 Organizations 664 APPENDIX L TABLES OF R-VALUES 667 L.1 R-Values foriypical Building Materials 668 L.2 R-Values of Air Spaces 670 L.3 Thermal Resistances for Slab Doors 670 APPENDIX M CONVERSION FACTORS BETWEEN THE INCH-POUND (I-P) AND SYSTEM INTERNATIONAL (SI) SYSTEMS 671 APPENDIX N. THE WATER TABLE FOR VENTILATION STUDIES N. 1 Introduction 675 N.2 Construction of a Water Table 675 BIBLIOGRAPHY 679 INDEX ' ^ ^ ; ':, V ' ; '^. :i\