Agricultural Drainage Engineering

Transcription

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2 Agricultural Drainage Engineering

3 ABOUT AUTHOR Prof. Hiteshkumar V. Parmar did his B. Tech. (Agril. Engg.) in 2001 and M. Tech. (Agril. Engg.- Soil and Water Engineering) in 2003 from College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Gujarat Agricultural University, Junagadh, Gujarat. He specializes in Soil and Water Engineering with emphasis on Agricultural Drainage Engineering, Watershed Management, Hydrology, Water Harvesting, Fluid Mechanics, Remote Sensing and GIS, etc. He is working as Assistant Professor at the College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, JAU, Junagadh since year He has been an active teacher, researcher and has guided number of B. Tech. (Agricultural Engineering) students for their research project in his area of specialization. He also worked as Project Officer ( ) on Watershed Management, Natural Resource Management with Foundation for Ecological Security (Earlier, National Tree Grover s Cooperative Federation- NTGCF), Dahod, a sister concern of National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) - Anand. He passed GATE in year 2001 and NET for Lectureship/ Assistant professorship in the professional subject Soil and Water Engineering conducted by ASRB, ICAR, New Delhi in year He also qualified written examination of Indian Forest Service, He has many research publications in national and international journals and conferences. He is a life member of Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers (ISAE). He is the secretary of ISAE-Gujarat chapter. He was the member secretary of the committee for the preparation of Comprehensive District Agriculture Plan (C-DAP) of Junagadh district.

4 AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE ENGINEERING Hiteshkumar V. Parmar

5 Published by: Scientific Publishers (India) 5 A, New Pali Road, P.O. Box 91 Jodhpur (India) info@scientificpub.com Website: Branch Office Scientific Publishers (India) 4806/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj New Delhi (India) 2014 Hiteshkumar V. Parmar All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced, adapted, abridged, translated, stored in a retrieval system, computer system, photographic or other systems or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the author and the publishers. Disclaimer: Whereas every effort has been made to avoid errors and omissions, this publication is being sold on the understanding that neither the author nor the publishers nor the printers would be liable in any manner to any person either for an error or for an omission in this publication, or for any action to be taken on the basis of this work. Any inadvertent discrepancy noted may be brought to the attention of the publishers, for rectifying it in future editions, if published. ISBN: eisbn: Printed in India

6 PREFACE Agricultural drainage system is planned to remove excess water from the crop land, whether coming through irrigation system, rainfall or runoff, before it creates waterlogging or high salinity condition. The sustainability of irrigated agriculture in many areas has been affected to a great extent by the necessity for drainage. Lack of adequate drainage was the primary cause of failure of certain agricultural civilizations. Starting as an art, born out of sheer necessity two centuries ago, drainage engineering has now acquired a scientific basis. In many regions of the world the provision of drainage facility in agricultural lands tends to become necessary with the passage of time. Without a suitable drainage network, excess precipitation tends to stagnate in large quantities for too long a period as well as during the critical crop growth periods, thereby severely decreasing the yield of crops. The book on Agricultural Drainage Engineering deals with the problem of drainage, drainage investigation, salt balance, surface drainage systems, subsurface drainage systems, reclamation of degraded land, designs and installation of drainage system, drainage materials, fabrication and testing of tiles, gypsum requirement, design of envelope, special drainage systems, supplementary protection structures, classification of soil and water, cost estimation, operation and maintenance of drainage systems, etc. The best effort has been made to acquaint the students about the practical application of agricultural drainage engineering like measurement of hydraulic conductivity in field and in laboratory, preparation of iso-bath and isobar maps, installation of piezometers and observation wells, design and installation of drainages systems, etc. The book is profusely illustrated with sketches and is not bulky. I believe that book Agricultural Drainage Engineering will assist in imparting better skills and understanding to Under Graduate (UG) and Post Graduate (PG) students, research scholars and professionals in the field of Agricultural Engineering (Irrigation, Drainage, Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Watershed Management, etc.), Agriculture (Soil Science, Soil Chemistry, Soil and Water Management, Natural Resources Management, etc.), Civil Engineering (Water Resource Management, Water Supply and Drainage Engineering, etc.), etc. In addition to its use as university level text and reference, students of polytechnics in agriculture engineering and agriculture, the book will be helpful to the students as a reference for preparation of competitive examinations like GATE/JRF/SRF/NET/ARS, etc. Suggestions for improving the book are always welcome and will be incorporated in the next edition. Hiteshkumar V. Parmar

7 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1. Tolerance levels of some of the major crops 11 Table 2.1. Soil Texture - Hydraulic Conductivity Relationship 27 Table 3.1. Hydraulic Conductivity of different Soil Types 43 Table 3.2. Observation Table for the Auger-Hole Method 52 Table 3.3. Observation table for the Inversed Auger-Hole Method 56 Table 3.4. Observation table for the Inversed Auger-Hole Method 62 Table 3.5. Observation table for Falling Head Permeameter 65 Table 3.6. Observation table for Constant Head Permeameter 67 Table 4.1. Comparison between Interceptor Drain and Relief Drain 70 Table 4.2. Runoff Coefficient "C" for Agricultural Watersheds (Soil Group B) 81 Table 4.3. Hydrologic Soil Group Conversion Factors 81 Table 4.4. Runoff Coefficients for the Rational Formula versus Hydrologic Soil Group (A, B, C, D) and Slope Range 82 Table 4.5. Distribution of 6-hr. rain within 6 hours 85 Table 4.6. Hydrologic Soil Cover Complex 85 Table 4.7. Antecedent Moisture Content (AMC) 86 Table 4.8. Hydrologic condition 86 Table 4.9. Curve Number Values for Different Land Use and Cover Conditions 86 Table Conversion of curve numbers from AMC-II to AMC-I and AMC-III 87 Table Value of Manning s n 89 Table The Permissible Velocities in Open Drains 89 Table Recommended Side Slopes for Drainage Channel 89 Table 5.1. Average Depth and Spacing of Tile Drains (adopted from Schwab et al; 1993) 95 Table 5.2. Equivalent Depth 'd e ' for Commonly Used Pipe Drains (For drains with diameter = 80 to 200 mm) 104 Table 5.3. Drainage Coefficient for Tile Drains in Humid Regions 117 Table 5.4. Minimum Grades for Pipe Drains 118 Table 5.5. Values for Manning's Coefficient 'n' for Pipe Material 118

8 viii Agricultural Drainage Engineering Table 6.1. Gradation relationships between soil and diameters of graded granular envelope material (after USBR, 1978, 1993) 144 Table Classification of Salt Affected soils 183 Table Chemical Properties of Various Amendments for Reclaiming Alkali 187 Table Gypsum Requirement and Exchangeable Sodium 188 Table Gypsum Requirement Using Pure Gypsum, One-to-one Replacement of Sodium by Calcium and Complete Dissolution and Mixing of Gypsum 189 Table Observation table for Gypsum requirement 191 Table Crop Tolerance to Alkalinity of Soil 192 Table Average soil salinity tolerated by specific crop 196 Table Water Quality Ratings (CSSRI, Karnal, 1972) 205 Table Relative Salt Tolerance of Crops 206 Table Soil Classification as per ph and EC 207 Table Classification of Soil by EC and SAR 208 Table Soil Salinity Classes and Crop Growth 209 Table Salt concentration and salinity classes 209 Table Drainage Water Quality Criteria for Irrigation Purposes 212 Table Effect of diluted drainage water on Wheat Yield 212 Table Plants and Irrigation water salinity 213 Table Water balance factors 227

9 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1. Types of Drainage System Only 18 Figure 1.2. Combined Drainage System 19 Figure 2.1. Observation Well 32 Figure 2.2. Construction of Water Table Contour Lines by Linear Interpolation 40 Figure 2.3. Water Table Contour Lines 41 Figure 2.4. Water Table Contour Map 41 Figure 3.1. Auger-hole method 51 Figure 3.2. Measurement for the Auger-Hole Method 51 Figure 3.3. Infiltration process beneath a Cylinder Infiltrometer 53 Figure 3.4. Measurements for the Inversed Auger-Hole Method 54 Figure 3.5. Fall of the water level, recorded with the inversed auger hole method, plotted against time (a). 56 Figure 3.6. Fall of the water level, recorded with the inversed auger hole method, plotted against time (b). 56 Figure 3.7. Infiltration form a water filled auger hole into the soil (Inversed auger hole method) 57 Figure 3.8. Measurements for the inversed auger hole method 57 Figure 3.9. Fall of the water level, recorded with the inversed auger-hole method, plotted against time (the symbol indicating the slope of the line should be α) 58 Figure Hanging Column Apparatus for Laboratory Determination of Drainable Porosity 61 Figure Falling Head Permeameter 64 Figure Constant Head Permeameter 66 Figure 4.1. Levelling 75 Figure 4.2. Layout for Lateral, Branches, Sub-Main, Main 76 Figure 4.3. Profile for drain 77 Figure 5.1. Steady Flow into a Ditch 98 Figure 5.2. Definition sketch for Hooghoudt s equation 100 Figure 5.3. Illustration of the parameters involved in Hooghoudt's equation for Steady state condition 101 Figure 5.4. Actual and idealized patter of flow towards a subsurface drain 103 Figure 5.5. Equivalent depth for the water conducting layers below the drain 104 Figure 5.6. Illustration of the distance parameters involved in the drainage of sloping lands, with entrance resistance taken into account 105 Figure 5.7. The shape of the water table obtained with the finite element method as published by Fipps and Skaggs (1989) 107

10 x Agricultural Drainage Engineering Figure 5.8. Steady flow into Drains in Layered Media 108 Figure 5.9. Nomograph for the solution of Hooghoudt s drain spacing formula 109 Figure Definition sketch for USBR equation 110 Figure Depiction of symbols for solution of USBR equation 111 Figure Nomograph for equivalent depth 112 Figure 6.1. Three Edge Bearing Test 136 Figure 6.2. Sand Bearing Test 137 Figure 6.3. Coconut Fiber Envelope 141 Figure 6.4. Example of the Design of a Grave Envelope 143 Figure 7.1. Drainage Layout 148 Figure 7.2. Random Drainage System 148 Figure 7.3. Herringbone Type Drainage System 149 Figure 7.4. Gridiron Drainage System 149 Figure 7.5. Interceptor Type Drainage System 150 Figure 7.6. Downstream location of the drain is marked by Pegging 151 Figure 7.7. Stakes are placed for levelling 151 Figure 7.8. Tools to install drains by hand 153 Figure 7.9. Subsurface Drainage Pipe 156 Figure Subsurface Drainage Section 157 Figure 8.1. Mole Plough and Mole Channel 165 Figure 8.2. Flow of Water toward the Well 168 Figure 9.1. Blind inlet 172 Figure 9.2. Surface inlet 172 Figure 9.3. Gravity outlet 173 Figure 9.4. Outlets 174 Figure 9.5. Silt basin 176 Figure 9.6. Junction 178 Figure 9.7. Manhole 179 Figure 9.8. Drain Bridge 179 Figure Relationship between Gypsum requirement and Soil ph 189 Figure The concept of 4 reservoirs with hydrological inflow and outflow components 214 Figure Illustration of a surface water balance during periods of high rainfall 220 Figure Month wise Water balance 221 Figure Reuse of drainage water pumped with wells for irrigation 221 Figure Runoff and discharge with time 222 Figure The salt concentration of the percolation water depends on the degree of mixing of infiltration water with the soil aggregates. 223 Figure Examples of the relation between hydrology and salinization. 225 Figure Example of salinization in uneven land 226

11 CONTENTS _Toc INTRODUCTION 1.1 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE DEVELOPMENT DRAINAGE PROBLEMS IN INDIA WATERLOGGING CLASSIFICATION OF WATERLOGGING AREAS CAUSES OF WATERLOGGING CONTROL OF WATERLOGGING AGRICULTURAL LAND DRAINAGE OBJECTIVES OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM EFFECT OF POOR DRAINAGE ON SOIL AND PLANTS BENEFITS OF DRAINAGE AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE SYSTEMS TYPES OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM COMPARISON OF SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE SYSTEMS DRAINAGE INVESTIGATION BASIC DATA REQUIRED COLLECTION OF EXISTING DATA TYPES OF INVESTIGATIONS SOIL SURVEY WATER SOURCES SURVEY GROUND WATER INVESTIGATIONS PIEZOMETERS AND OBSERVATION WELLS OBSERVATIONS METHODS FOR MEASURING WATER LEVELS FREQUENCY OF OBSERVATIONS ANALYSIS OF DATA GROUNDWATER MAPS HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY VARIABILITY 44

12 xii Agricultural Drainage Engineering 3.3. METHODS OF DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY THE AUGER-HOLE METHOD (SMALL-SCALE IN-SITU METHOD) INVERSED AUGER-HOLE METHOD LARGE-SCALE IN-SITU METHODS DRAINABLE POROSITY MEASUREMENT OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY FALLING HEAD PERMEAMETER APPARATUS DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY USING CONSTANT HEAD PERMEAMETER SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM AND DESIGN AREA WHICH REQUIRES SURFACE DRAINAGE LAND FORMATION FOR SURFACE DRAINAGE SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS SURFACE DRAINS LEVELLING FOR THE DRAINS DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM HYDROLOGIC DESIGN OF OPEN DRAIN RATIONAL METHOD OF PREDICTING PEAK RUNOFF RATE ESTIMATION OF RUNOFF USING CURVE NUMBER TECHNIQUE HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF OPEN DRAIN SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM AND DESIGN BENEFITS OF SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE METHODS OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE TILE DRAIN SYSTEM DEEP OPEN DRAINS DEPTH AND SPACING OF TILE DRAINS STEADY STATE CONDITION UNSTEADY STATE CONDITION DRAINAGE COEFFICIENT HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS/ TILE DRAINS ECONOMICS AND COST ANALYSIS OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM DRAINAGE MATERIALS DRAIN PIPES CHARACTERISTICS OF TILES CLAY TILES CONCRETE TILES PLASTIC DRAIN PIPES 128

13 Contents xiii 6.6. PIPE ACCESSORIES TESTING OF DRAINAGE TILES MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS TESTING THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE OR CLAY TILES POSSIBLE FUTURE TEST METHODS ENVELOPE FOR SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM ENVELOPE MATERIAL DESIGN CRITERIA OF ENVELOPE DESIGN OF DRAINAGE ENVELOPE INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS LAYOUT OF SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS CONSTRUCTION METHODS MACHINERY FOR DRAIN PIPE INSTALLATION INSTALLATION OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM PLANNING AND PREPARATORY ASPECTS FOR DRAINAGE INSTALLATION SUPERVISION AND INSPECTION DURING INSTALLATION OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM MONITORING MAINTENANCE OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM SPECIAL DRAINAGE SYSTEMS MOLE DRAINAGE SYSTEM STABILITY OF MOLE CHANNEL FACTORS AFFECTING MOLE CHANNEL STABILITY VERTICAL DRAINAGE SUITABILITY OF VERTICAL DRAINAGE BIO-DRAINAGE SUPPLEMENTARY PROTECTION STRUCTURES INLETS OUTLETS OUTLET PROTECTION STRUCTURES SILT BASINS BREATHERS RELIEF PIPES JUNCTION BOXES MANHOLES DRAIN BRIDGES GRADIENT REDUCERS 180

14 xiv Agricultural Drainage Engineering 10. RECLAMATION OF SALT AFFECTED SOILS SALT AFFECTED SOILS SOURCES OF SALINITY CAUSES OF WATER-LOGGING SOURCE OF SALTS IN WATER RECLAMATION OF ALKALI SOILS RECLAMATION OF SALINE SOIL RECLAMATION OF SALINE - ALKALI SOILS SOIL AND WATER QUALITY WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS OF WATER CLASSIFICATION OF WATER SALT TOLERANT CROPS CLASSIFICATION OF THE SOIL DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND WATER CONJUNCTIVE USE CYCLIC USE WATER AND SALT BALANCE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND WATER BALANCE IN AGRICULTURE LAND WATER BALANCE OF THE SURFACE RESERVOIR WATER BALANCE IN THE ROOT ZONE WATER BALANCE IN THE TRANSITION ZONE WATER BALANCE IN THE AQUIFER COMBINED WATER BALANCES STEADY STATE CONDITION EXAMPLES OF WATER BALANCES SALT BALANCES IN THE AGRICULTURAL LAND EXAMPLES OF SALT BALANCES IN AGRICULTURE LAND GLOSSARY 230 REFERENCES 235