The Baltic Sea main common resource and model region for an integrated maritime policy

Transcription

1 Heft 8/ The Baltic Sea main common resource and model region for an integrated maritime policy 1 Introduction The Baltic Sea is a very important space for various human activities, not only with regard to the economical use of the space but also to other aspects such as environment protection and preservation. The Baltic Sea can be perceived as a spatial resource for all those human activities often being in conflict or contradiction to others1 claiming for exclusiveness over certain areas. Some activities rely on additional resources provided by the sea (e.g. fish stocks) while others are only based on space (navigation). It is important to distinguish between non-moveable and moveable uses of the sea as well as between renewable or non-renewable resources provided by the sea. Those differentiations are significant in the process of creating integrated maritime policies to detect those uses and resources, which can be shifted to release space for others. Juliusz Gajewski Urszula Kowalczyk Andrzej Osowiecki fish stocks as well as maintaining the nutrient uptake capacities by reducing pollution from land- and sea-based sources), and, on the other hand, maritime transport and tourism space. Offshore wind energy aspects and potentials will also be discussed. 2 The Baltic Sea biota resources What makes the Baltic Sea so special and so different from other seas is a set of exclusive features. Compared to other seas, it is relatively young. Its biocenoses have been shaped for only several thousand years and there is still a number of ecological niches to be occupied. Despite a limited number of plant and animal species, the Baltic Sea s brackish ecosystem is inhabited by a unique blend of marine and freshwater species, marine ones dominating the more saline western part and freshwater dominating the northern and eastern waters where salinity is lower. Typical examples of non-moveable uses are those which are related to the exploitation of the non-living resources of the sea (fossil fuels, marine aggregates). In most cases these are non-renewable resources once collected, they will release space for other uses. Moveable uses among others include navigation, quite often military restrictive areas, fishery (within zones of fish occurrence). Renewable resources include wind and wave energy, fish stocks (as long as not destroyed by overfishing and pollution). It should be mentioned that in a few decades the sea will be subject to an agrarian or industrial revolution, as space on land becomes a more and more valuable and expensive asset. The Baltic Sea sub-areas differ considerably in their characteristics affecting the biological components. There is a strong gradient in salinity and temperature from east to west and from south to north. Another feature is the vertical salinity stratification of the water masses. It impedes a vertical mixing of the water and subsequently leads to an oxygen depletion of the bottom waters and sediments in the vast areas of the Baltic basins and particularly deeps. A limited exchange of waters with the North Sea makes the Baltic Sea very sensitive to nutrient enrichment and eutrophication. All that significantly increases the vulnerability of the Baltic Sea biota. Some examples of successful or just growing cooperations and uses in the Baltic Sea Region (BSR) will be presented in the paper. On the one hand, they include environmental aspects of the Baltic Sea, which for many years now have been under the protective umbrella of the Helsinki Convention (supporting the growth of biodiversity, Compared to other seas, the biodiversity of the Baltic Sea is remarkably low. The Baltic Sea food web is based on a limited number of species. Such systems are considered to be very vulnerable since the disappearance of a single key species caused by external disturbances could affect the whole ecosystem structure and functioning. Juliusz Gajewski Instytut Morski w Gdańsku Zaklad Oceanografii Operacyjnej Dlugi Targ 41/ Gdansk juliusz.gajewski@ im.gda.pl Urszula Kowalczyk Instytut Morski w Gdańsku Zakład Ekonomiki i Prawa Długi Targ 41/ Gdańsk urszula.kowalczyk@ im.gda.pl Dr. Andrzej Osowiecki Samodzielna Pracownia Ekologii Instytut Morski w Gdańsku ul. Abrahama Gdańsk andrzej.osowiecki@ im.gda.p

2 562 Juliusz Gajewski, Urszula Kowalczyk, Andrzej Osowiecki: The Baltic Sea main common resource and model region for an integrated maritime policy Eutrophication and other socio-economic activities such as shipping and exploitation of the living and non-living resources can be regarded as major threats to the Baltic Sea species and habitats. The nutrient surplus generates an excessive primary production. Phytoplanktonic algae constitute the first link between inorganic nutrients and the food web. Algal blooms at sea are naturally occurring phenomena, however, mass occurrences of algae have become more frequent and intense in the last decades. In particular, blooms of potentially toxic algae, that have been annually occurring in the Baltic Sea in recent years, pose a threat to a balanced functioning of the system. Due to the mass occurrence of microscopic algae in the water column, a reduced light penetration impacts the submerged aquatic vegetation by limiting the depth range of the occurrence of perennial species. This also applies to opportunistic species of macroalgae, e.g. filamentous brown algae with a short life cycle and a rapid development at the beginning of the vegetation season which with a shadowing effect limit the light availability for perennials. Such a degradation of communities is ongoing in several areas of the Baltic Sea, however, some positive signs of a slowing down or reversal of eutrophication effects on macrophytes could be observed in areas of the Northern Baltic Proper, the Gulf of and the Puck Bay in the Southern Baltic Proper where the distribution of macrophyte species has partly recovered. The biomass of primary producers excessively accumulates on the Baltic seabed, where oxygen from the water is used in the process of decomposing organic matter. This leads to oxygen depletion, especially in areas where the water mixing is restricted by salinity or thermal stratification. A low concentration of oxygen in the near bottom water layer (hypoxia) or even an episodic absence of oxygen (anoxia) eliminates communities of large, long-living species favouring communities of opportunistic organisms small and rapidly reproducing in periods of recovery. Since 21, only the Gulf of Bothnia has appeared to be free of both seasonal and long-term hypoxia with the exception of some coastal sites. All other basins of the Baltic Sea seem to have suffered from a seasonal or permanent hypoxia during this period.2 Fishes play an important role in the Baltic Sea ecosystem. They feed on plankton and benthic invertebrates and constitute the food source for marine top predators mammals and birds. Approximately one hundred fish species inhabit the brackish waters of the Baltic Sea. The composition of fish communities varies in different regions of the Baltic Sea and depends on natural and anthropogenic factors such as salinity, water temperature, oxygen depletion, availability of suitable habitat for breeding and feeding, fishing activity etc. Assessments of commercially important fish resources based on officially reported fish catches by national statistical offices have been available since the early 196s. Estimates of discards and landings, which are not officially reported, increase these amounts, e.g. unreported and illegal catches of cod in the Baltic Sea in recent years are still a problem to be solved. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) has stated that the official catch statistics of cod have been revised by 34 %. According to the ICES statistics, sprat and herring landings have dominated the total catches since the beginning of the 199s. The highest nominal catches were recorded during , when the total landings reached 1,1, tonnes. The annual level of total catch in 28 was approximately 7, tonnes. About 9% of the total fish catch (tonnes) consists of herring, sprat, cod and flounder. Major fish stocks have undergone considerable fluctuations resulting in negative consequences to the economy of the Baltic Sea fisheries in the last decades.3 The fish and the fishery can substantially influence the nutrient dynamics in marine systems. It is estimated that the removal of nutrients by the fishery amounts to 1.4% and 7% of the total nitrogen and phosphorus load to the Baltic Sea, which corresponds to 2.4% and 18% of the anthropogenic load of nitrogen and phosphorus respectively. The summer increase of fish biomass can explain up to one third of the summer decrease in the total phosphorus in the upper 4 m of the water column. This suggests that fish may compete with primary producers (particularly cyanobacteria) for phosphorus.4

3 Heft 8/9.29 The Baltic Sea inventory of native fauna and flora species is being constantly extended by non-indigenous species. Over 12 nonnative aquatic species have been recorded to date and around 8 of these have established viably reproducing populations in some parts of the Baltic5. Most of them originate from freshwater or brackish water environments, particularly from North America or the Ponto-Caspian region. The first group was accidentally brought in by ships in their bilge and ballast waters, while the second reached the Baltic Sea through manmade Central European channels. Many of the invader species have succeeded in the competition with the native ones. Some have found a free ecological niche and coexist with the natives. 3 Maritime transport and tourism The Baltic Sea is the main economic and logistic artery of the region. It is also a strategic route for oil exports from Baltic Sea states to the rest of Europe and further afield. The Baltic Sea is one of the oldest trading routes in Europe and still remains one of the busiest routes in the world with 15% of the global traffic.6 The Baltic Sea connects the nations and it constitutes a platform for business and socio-economic development. In the past few decades, the Baltic Sea Region has experienced radical changes and rapid development. Eight states are integrated in the BSR market and also in the internal market of the European Union. This has contributed to the development of the economy and of technical progress in the region since the beginning of the 199s. Close cooperation is observed in developing the transport and tourism potential. It turns into increased trade and growth by deepening the cooperation around the internal market and widening its opportunities. There is a constant pressure to improve the efficiency in utilising resources through closer economic ties between the Baltic Sea states. Recently, more than ever, the region has in many ways been open to the movement of people, goods, services and transfer capital and ideas. The Baltic Sea Region is often regarded as the most dynamic and innovative economic growth centre in Europe. 563 External economic relations are extremely important for the countries of the Baltic Sea area, for example the Finnish economy, and the value of its foreign trade is almost three-fourths of the country s GDP. Approximately 8% of the flow of Finnish foreign trade goods are transported by sea. Around 4% of s foreign trade involves other states surrounding the Baltic Sea. A similar share of Finish foreign investments ends up in the Baltic Sea area. Foreign investments flowing to from the region are even higher (7 %). The economic dependency of the Baltic States on the Baltic Sea Region is even larger than s, whilst the respective dependency of Germany and Russia is smaller than that of. Although Germany is the world s largest foreign trader, one tenth of its trade goes on with other Baltic Sea countries. As it was already mentioned above, the Baltic Sea is also important for Russia. The EU makes up about half of Russia s foreign trade and the dominating part of the foreign trade of the European Union and Russia runs through the Baltic Sea. Seaborne trade in the Baltic Sea area has not only increased during the last decade, but the nature of the traffic has also rapidly changed. One important change is the increase of oil transportation due to new oil terminals in Russia. The Baltic Sea has become Russia s most important export route for crude oil. Each year over 14 million tonnes of oil from the east are transported via the ports of the Gulf of. By the middle of the next decade, the oil export will increase to over 2 million tonnes. The ports of the Baltic Sea Region show high development rates which is due to the economic progress of the countries as well as to opportunities and readiness of national authorities to resolve the problems of a port infrastructure. Seaports of the Baltic Sea Region countries handled more than 95 million tonnes of cargo in 28.7 The increase of cargo turnover was a consequence of the expansion of the Russian foreign trade on the Baltic Sea market and the development of the loading capacity of national seaports in the region8 first of all Hamburg, Primorsk and the extended port complex of St. Petersburg. In 27, the total cargo turnover of all sea ports of the Baltic Sea Region was mil-

4 Juliusz Gajewski, Urszula Kowalczyk, Andrzej Osowiecki: The Baltic Sea main common resource and model region for an integrated maritime policy 564 lion tonnes of which the German ports turnover was 28.9 million tonnes, the Russian 172.2, the Swedish 146.5, the Finnish 17.2, the Danish 97.2, the Latvian 62.4, the Polish 55.5, the Estonian 44.7 and finally the Lithuanian 31.9 million tonnes (see Table 1). The top 2 Baltic Sea ports measured by the total cargo volume handled 54 million tonnes of cargo accounting for 61% of the total cargo traffic. The international container traffic was highly concentrated % of the total 7.4 million TEU (Twenty-foot Equivalent Units) of containers handled in the Baltic Sea in 27 passed through top 2 container ports and about 75 % of the total container turnover is concentrated in the five largest ports Table 1 Gross volume of seaborne goods handled in the ports of the Baltic Sea countries (million tonnes)* Country % 27:26 Denmark Estonia Latvia Lithuania Total *Germany and Russia not included Source: calculation based on EUROSTAT data Table 2 Container turnover in the main ports of the Baltic Sea Region (thousend TEU) Ports Countries Hamburg Germany St. Petersburg Russia Arhus Denmark Gothenburg Gdynia Kotka Helsinki Klaipeda Lithuania Helsingborg Riga Latvia Hamina Copenhagen/Malmö Denmark/ Tallin Estonia Kaliningrad Russia Rauma. Source: Containerisation International and official Internet sites of the ports. (see Table 2). The handling of containers in absolute terms grew the most in Sankt Petersburg, Gdynia and Kotka. Apart from the port of Gothenburg, these three ports belong to the major container ports in the Baltic Sea.9 The region has shown the fastest growing rates of seaborne container traffic in Europe in recent years. Due to the limits of the Danish belts, all the Baltic Sea container ports have the feeder port status and cannot accept container vessels with a capacity above 4 TEU (except for Hamburg with the status of a hub/gateway). Larger Baltic Sea ports like St. Petersburg, Gothenburg, Gdynia, Klaipeda, Riga, Helsinki, Ust Luga and some others act as regional hub ports. The Baltic Sea cargo market is and will be largely driven by Russia and Russian consumers. Market analyses show that 75% of all containerised loads into Russia pass through Baltic Sea ports, which is mainly justified by geographic and market distribution reasons. The Russian Federation uses Baltic Sea maritime routes to support trade and economic relations both with the Baltic region states and other countries of the world. In the geographical respect, 8 countries of the European Union (EU), the main Russian trade partner, refer to the Baltic Sea basin. Over 19 % of the total foreign trade volume of the Russian Federation and 37 % of the Euro pean Union are realized with these countries. The absolute index of foreign trade between Russia and the Baltic Sea countries has exceeded 15 billion USD in 27.1 Also to the port of Hamburg, Russian ports are the main trading partners in the field of container transportation among all European ports, since 26. The port of Hamburg plays a particularly important role in the BSR economy as 7 % of the consumer good imports to the Baltic Sea area are handled via Hamburg and trading with the Baltic Sea states accounts for 1 % of Hamburg s external trade (7.7 billion euros in 26).11 The marine container handling in the port of Hamburg in 27 included around 2.7 million TEU (27 % of containers handled) to/ from Baltic Sea and Scandinavian destinations/ports of origin. German ports located at the Baltic Sea will double their cargo turnover by The ports of Russia, followed by and, are among

5 Heft 8/ Table 3 Number of seaborne passengers embarked and disembarked in Baltic Sea ports (in thousand persons) Country 27 % 27: Estonia Denmark Cruise Non cruise Total Latvia Lithuania Total Source: calculation based on EUROSTAT data. the key trade partner ports of China (including Hong Kong) and Singapore. Hamburg concentrates about 4% of all transit containers intended for Russia. The port of St. Petersburg is the second largest universal Baltic Sea seaport. It also includes the bulk oil port of Primorsk. The goods turnover in Primorsk amounted to 74.2 million tonnes, in the St. Petersburg port to 59.6 million tonnes in 27. The number of vessels in the port of St. Petersburg was ( callings and exits), in the port of Primorsk tankers (74 callings and 741 exits). The St. Petersburg port does not handle crude oil. The turnover share of refinery oil was only 25 % in 27. The basic commodities include various dry cargoes: container (29 %), general (25 %), bulk (17 %), timber (4 %). The volume of seaborne trade of Russia in the Baltic Sea Region is not limited by cargo handling only via domestic ports. Large streams of the Russian foreign trade commodities continue to go as transit goods via the ports of Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania,. Nearly 244 million tonnes of the Russian foreign trade cargo have been handled in all ports in 27. They make up 31 % of the total cargo turnover in all ports of the Baltic Sea area. Besides the seaborne trade and ports development, there are also other activities in the Baltic Sea area such as wind farms, oil and gas pipelines and oil platforms. More over, during summer months, the shores of the Baltic Sea are natural choice for holiday and recreation for many people living in the Baltic Sea Region as well as for many other visitors. The majority of international tourists in the Baltic Sea countries come from countries around it. The summary of nights spent by international tourists in 26 in also confirms that the first three countries by origin of tourists were the neighbouring countries of Norway, Germany, Denmark. The majority of passenger traffic (not necessarily tourist purpose) can be attributed to ferry traffic due to specific natural conditions of the area but cruisers as well include the Baltic Sea in their voyages (see Table 3). The Baltic Sea Region is one of the world s fastest growing cruise destinations. To build on the competitiveness of the region, 1 countries in 25 joined together in an extended, transnational partnership.13 The Baltic Sea cooperation has made a major contribution to a positive shaping of the cooperation of the EU member states in the Baltic Sea area supporting the accession of the Baltic Sea states to the EU and developing partnership with Russia. The area could be established as a model maritime region within Europe combining a successful maritime business and sustainable protection of marine ecosystems.

6 566 Juliusz Gajewski, Urszula Kowalczyk, Andrzej Osowiecki: The Baltic Sea main common resource and model region for an integrated maritime policy Potential for wind energy production in the Baltic Sea 4 Offshore wind energy in the Baltic Sea The offshore wind energy production is definitely a new growing business around the Baltic Sea, which has a major impact on the use of the space due to an exclusive use of space at wind farms and the need of space for cable connection. In the short term, this new business will require a rethinking of the location of existing uses and resources as its potential for influencing many aspects of our lives is enormous (energy production limiting the amount of carbon dioxide emission and increasing the energy supply safety while definitely having impact on environment, navigation, fishery etc.). The potential wind energy production is illustrated in the figure. Another aspect of offshore wind energy is its potential for integrating countries and their grid networks (e. g. Krieger s Flak area being developed by adjusting wind farms from Denmark, Germany and ; giving additional possibilities to connect to the Polish grid network). When compared with water depths and today s ability to install wind farms ( to 5 metres of water depth for towers fixed at the sea bottom, more than 15 m of water depth for operating wind power generators), the potential for production of the wind energy is as shown in table 4. The numbers are prepared for a low investment concentration of 5 MW of installed power for 1 square kilometre of space used. In practice, higher values are often used (23 and more depending on the local conditions) but for budgeting purposes in the field of maritime spatial planning in we use low values to compensate for potential conflicts with other uses. From Table 4, the major conclusion might be drawn, that although for water depths of up to 5 metres it is technically feasible to build wind towers, it is really necessary that Table 4 Potential for energy yield in the Baltic Sea area14 Water depths Total area Area (1 km²) Area with the highest yield (more than 2 GWh/km²/year from 5 MW/km² of installed power) Production (TWh/year) Area (1 km²) Production (TWh/year) 5 m m m and more

7 Heft 8/ locations are well prepared and chosen. It is obvious that there is a small part of those areas (1 %) with a much higher productivity (16 %) and that greater depths increase the probability for a higher energy production. This implies that building offshore wind farms is risky and from a spatial point of view has to be carefully planned in order to limit the spatial occupation. It also has to be stated that for the same space other uses will prevail, but if only 2 % of this potential is used, the production of energy of 252 TWh/year will exceed the estimated need for energy of the entire in 23. Studies made for show that the wind energy potential in the Polish part of the Baltic Sea is at least 4 TWh/year (only areas with relatively easy connections to grid and excluding all other conflicting uses), which corresponds to 6 % of the renewable energy production goals set by the Euro pean Union for in Conclusions The Baltic Sea Region has a long tradition of cooperation in various fields of spatial planning and development (to mention a few initiatives like the Helsinki Convention, Baltic 21, VASAB15, Baltic Sea Fisheries Commission). Despite this long lasting cooperation, there is need for a more holistic approach to spatial and resource uses in the Baltic Sea, as most of the decisions are taken on national level. The BSR might be an excellent pilot area for testing an integrated maritime policy as well as a place for reaching a breakthrough in the intensity of the sustainable use of marine space and resources. There are many tasks to be fulfilled in order to realise this potential including a more knowledge-based environmental protection, a flexible fishery and navigation, the development of more environmentally friendly maritime technologies (such as clean shipping, prevention of accidents, more efficient wind power generators, new technologies in fish farming and aquaculture) and the development of a general awareness of a proper management of the sea. Annotations (1) For those use conflicts also see the contribution of Cieslak on martime spatial planning in this edition (2) HELCOM (Helsinki Commission): Eutrophication in the Baltic Sea. Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings (BSEP) (29) No 115B, pp (3) HELCOM: Commercial Fisheries and the management of the Baltic stocks (28; www. helcom.fi/environment2/biodiv/fish/en_gb/ commercial_fisheries/) (4) Hjerne, O.; Hansson, S.: The role of fish and fisheries in Baltic Sea nutrient dynamics. Limnology and oceanograph 47 (22) No 4, pp (5) Baltic Sea Alien Species Database 28 (www. corpi.ku.lt/nemo/) (11) Contribution by the City of Hamburg to the EU Baltic Sea Strategy, 1 September 28 (6) WWF Baltic Ecoregion Action Programme Conservation Plan (12) Baltic Transport Journal 29/1. (7) Current statistics reveal that around 2, sizeable ships are normally at sea in the Baltic Sea including large oil tankers, ships carrying dangerous and potentially polluting cargoes as well as many large passenger ferries. (8) Efimova E.G.: Ports as gateways and hubs of the Baltic Sea Region. BRE 3/28 (9) The Baltic Port List 27. CMS Turku 28. (1) Efimowa E.G.: Ports as gateways and hubs, op.cit. BRE 3/28 (13) Baltic Cruise Project ( (14) MW = Megawatt, GWh = Gigawatt hour, TWh = Terawatt hour (15) See for more information on cooperation in the field of spatial planning (VASAB - Vision and Strategies around the Baltic Sea) the article of Fischer/Zaucha, for other fields of cooperation also the article of Löwendahl/Pursiainen in this edition