Biology. Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Intermediate 1)

Transcription

1 Biology Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Intermediate 1) 9021

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3 Summer 2001 HIGHER STILL Biology Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Intermediate 1) Support Materials

4 This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes provided that no profit is derived from the reproduction and that, if reproduced in part, the source is acknowledged. First published 2001 Learning + Teaching Scotland Northern College Gardyne Road Broughty Ferry Dundee DD5 INY Tel

5 CONTENTS Introduction Health and Technology Student summary notes Student summary notes: cloze technique consolidation exercise Summary notes: completion questions Glossary Words and meanings Biotechnological Industries Student summary notes Student summary notes: cloze technique consolidation exercise Summary notes: completion questions Glossary Words and meanings Growing Plants Student summary notes Student summary notes: cloze technique consolidation exercise Summary notes: completion questions Glossary Words and meanings Words and Meanings Answer Sheets Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1)

6 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1)

7 INTRODUCTION The Course Specification Arrangements have been clarified by SQA (third edition 1999) to provide a clearer indication of depth of treatment. The summary notes have been revised to include this clearer indication of depth of treatment and to provide exemplification where appropriate. In addition, the summary notes have also been written in a variety of formats detailed below: Student summary notes Student summary notes: cloze technique consolidation exercise Summary notes: completion questions Glossary Words and meanings. Student Summary Notes Revised summary notes giving a clearer indication of depth of treatment. These can be issued as a useful revision resource to prepare students for the knowledge and understanding elements and the Outcome 2 activities for each unit. (KU for unit assessment and KU and Outcome 2 activities assessed at Course level.) A useful reference used in conjunction with the Intermediate 1 Question Bank Materials (8720). Student Summary Notes: cloze technique Summary notes presented as a cloze technique exercise requiring students to complete the blanks using the words in the wordbank provided at the foot of each page. These can be used as a classroom or homework activity to consolidate learning at the end of a lesson, Unit or Course. Summary Notes: completion questions Short answer response questions to reinforce the KU content of the summary notes. Again these can be used in a variety of ways. Glossary A glossary of key words taken from the arrangements document and summary notes with definitions for each. A useful resource which can also be used as a homework activity to learn the key words and meanings for each Unit. Words and Meanings Exercise to reinforce key words and meanings for each Unit. Word puzzles and table completion exercises. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 1

8 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 2

9 Intermediate 1 Biology Health and Technology Student Summary Notes Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 3

10 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 4

11 1. What is health and technology? The meaning of health There are three sides to health. This is called the health triangle. Social Mental Physical If any one of these is not right then you will feel unhealthy. Healthy Lifestyles A healthy lifestyle would include: eating an appropriate range of foods taking regular exercise taking part in pleasurable activities taking regular relaxation avoiding unnecessary health risks such as smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol and taking drugs. Physiological measurements as indicators of health Taking certain physiological measurements can give an indication of the health of the person. Some measurements would include: temperature blood pressure body fat heart (pulse) rate These measurements can be taken using high tech and low tech approaches. Physiological Measurement High tech approach Low tech approach Temperature Thermocouple Thermometer or thermister Body fat Digital body fat sensor Skin fold calipers Blood pressure Heart (pulse) rate Digital Sphygmomanometer Pulsometer Heart rate monitor Stethoscope and mercury manometer Finger and stopwatch Comparison of high tech and low tech measurements. Physiological measurement Advantage Disadvantage High tech approach Increased accuracy Not widely available Expensive Low tech approach Inexpensive Easy to use Widely available Less accurate Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 5

12 2. A Healthy Heart The heart and circulatory system Students must know how to take a pulse rate measurement using a stopwatch and pulsometer. The heart is made of muscle and pumps blood around the body. When the heart muscle contracts it pumps blood through vessels around the body. There are valves in your heart that make sure that the blood always flows in the right direction. It is the closing of these valves that gives the sound of the heart beat which can be heard when using a stethoscope. Diagram of a human heart There are three kinds of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, they divide again and again and eventually form very tiny blood vessels called capillaries. Capillaries allow nutrients and oxygen to pass from the blood to the tissues and allow carbon dioxide and other wastes to leave tissues. The capillaries join up with one another to form large vessels called veins. Veins return blood to the heart. Diagrams of artery, capillary and vein Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 6

13 Diagram showing blood flow around the body Pulse rate as a health indicator Each time the heart beats it pushes blood into our arteries and make them swell out a little. The pressure wave is transmitted to all parts of the body and can be detected as a pulse. Pulse rates are expressed as beats per minute and give a direct measure of the speed at which your heart is beating. The pulse can be measured using a pulsometer or heart rate monitor. We can find out how fit we are by measuring our resting pulse rate. This value gives a measure of the efficiency of the heart and circulation. Normal range of pulse rate is between beats per minute. A high resting pulse rate means that your heart is having to work hard just to circulate blood around the body and can lead to heart disease. A low resting pulse rate and a short recovery time (i.e. the time for the pulse rate to return to normal after exercise) can indicate fitness. The resting pulse rate can be reduced by taking regular exercise. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 7

14 Blood pressure under different conditions Blood pressure is the pressure of our blood in our arteries. This pressure is caused by the pumping action of the heart. Blood pressure can be measured using a sphygmomanometer. Our blood pressure changes significantly depending on our emotional and physical condition, where the arm is placed during the measurement and how and where the cuff is fastened. Blood pressure is taken as two readings: the first, higher pressure, is caused when the heart contracts and is pushing blood into the arteries. the second, lower pressure, is caused when the heart relaxes and is refilling with blood. The blood pressure readings are measured in millimetres of mercury (mmhg). A typical blood pressure of 110 (first reading), 75 (second reading) is written as 110/75. Any reading up to 140/90 is considered to be within the normal range. High blood pressure can be caused by a number of factors: overweight being overweight puts more strain on the heart which has to work harder lack of exercise incorrect diet - too much fat and salt in food drinking excessive amounts of alcohol stress smoking the heart has to work harder because carbon monoxide restricts oxygen carrying capacity of red blood cells and nicotine narrows blood vessels High blood pressure increases with age and can lead to a heart attack or stroke. Low blood pressure is uncommon but can lead to fainting or can indicate heart failure. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 8

15 Blood tests and blood counts Often it is possible to analyse our blood to give us an indication of the state of our health. This analysis will also be able detect and monitor various illness. Blood tests and cell counts can be used to detect: anaemia - iron content and red blood cell numbers are low. Common symptoms are tiredness and a pale complexion. infection the presence of microbes, antibodies in the blood and an increased white blood cell count leukaemia the number of white blood cells is either abnormally high or low diabetes the sugar content of the blood is too high and sugar is present in the urine. blood groups - types of red blood cells (A, B, AB, O). 3. Healthy Lungs The lungs and breathing Our lungs are found inside our rib cage and they are situated on either side of the heart. The lungs are spongy pink in colour and are made up of millions of air sacs. The lungs take in oxygen into the blood and remove carbon dioxide from the blood to the air. Exercise improves the efficiency of gas exchange in the lungs. A fit person s breathing rate will be slower than that of an unfit person. A fit person will also have a shorter recovery time i.e. it will take less time for their breathing rate to return to normal after exercise than it will for an unfit person. Diagram of the human respiratory system Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 9

16 The physiological measurements of the lungs The measurement of vital capacity, tidal volume and peak flow allow us to measure the state of the health of our lungs. Vital capacity The vital capacity is the maximum volume of air we can breathe out after we have taken a deep breath. The vital capacity of a 16-year-old female is about 2800cm³ and for a 16-year old male it is about 4000cm³. Tidal volume The tidal volume is the normal volume of air breathed in or out from our lungs. This is usually about one tenth of the normal vital capacity. Peak flow The peak flow is a measure of the maximum rate at which air can be forced from the lungs. The peak flow rate can be used as a measurement of health e.g. it can be used in the diagnosis and management of asthma. The vital capacity, tidal volume and peak flow of a person depends on the age, sex, size and fitness of the person e.g. Age vital capacity reaches a maximum by the age of 20 Sex females have lower vital capacities than males Size the taller you are the greater your vital capacity Fitness endurance training gradually increases your vital capacity Health risks and effects of smoking Smoking increases the risk of cancer and heart disease. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas found in cigarette smoke. This gas reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 10

17 4. A Healthy Body The importance of diet and energy balance The food and drink we eat everyday makes up our diet. A healthy diet contains a balance of all the important nutrients: carbohydrates proteins fats vitamins and minerals fibres water. Energy giving nutrients are: carbohydrates found in food like cereal, bread, potato fats found in butter, margarine and bacon. Body building nutrients are: proteins found in fish, meat and peanuts. Protective nutrients are: vitamins and minerals found in fresh fruit and vegetables. About half the population in Britain are overweight and about one-fifth of them are obese. Someone who is obese is more likely to suffer from diseases such as coronary heart disease or diabetes. There are many reasons why people are overweight but scientists are convinced that a person s diet or eating habits is one of the many factors which determines a person s weight. The relationship between fat and health The amount of body fat you have can indicate the health of a person. Being overweight can lead to an increased risk of: heart disease fat can narrow the arteries and cause an increase in blood pressure and heart attacks kidney failure arthritis diabetes. Being underweight can indicate illnesses such as: cancer anorexia. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 11

18 Body fat can be measured using calipers. A skinfold caliper is a device which measures the thickness of a fold of skin with its underlying layer of fat. By doing this at key locations; shown by research to be representative of the total amount of fat on the body, it is possible to estimate the total percentage body fat of a person. The body should have about 20% fat. The normal ranges of body fat are shown in the table below. Age Range Ideal % Body Fat (Years) Females Males up to over Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 12

19 The relationship between body temperature and health Students must know how to measure temperature. Our body temperature needs to be kept at a constant temperature between ºC. Our body temperature can alter slightly depending on where it is measured, the time and day and in women, the time of the month (menstrual cycle). A body temperature above 40 C can lead to heatstroke or indicate fever as a result of fighting infection. A body temperature below 35 C indicates hypothermia. If the temperature of the body falls below 30 C, death can result. Babies and the elderly are particularly at risk. Exercise and the health of muscles Most of the energy obtained from food is used for movement. All movement is brought about by the action of muscles. Muscles can only contract. When they contract the parts of the body which they are attached to move. After contraction, muscles relax and return to their original shape. Muscles must work in pairs. Diagram of muscle pairs in the arm: Muscle strength and endurance are good ways of measuring someone s physical fitness, but not necessarily their general state of health. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 13

20 The size, strength, and efficiency of muscles can be improved through regular exercise. Muscles respond to regular exercise by growing larger and developing a better blood supply. One way to improve the strength of our muscles is to exercise them regularly. Muscle mass decreases if muscles are not exercised regularly. Muscle fatigue (tiredness) can be relieved by relaxation. Reaction time as an indicator of health Reaction time is the time taken for a person to respond to a certain stimulus. Reaction time is a good indicator of health. It can be measured using a dropped ruler or electronic timer. A slow reaction time can indicate diabetes, brain or nervous disorders or arterial disease. Our reaction time can be affected by: drugs slows down reaction time alcohol slows down reaction time excitement speeds up reaction time Health risks and the effects of alcohol The effects of drinking small amounts of alcohol occasionally are short term and will not harm your body. However, alcohol is a depressant drug, and small amounts can slow down processes in your brain. In the short term, alcohol in the blood leads to: slower reaction time (increase in time taken to react) poor muscle control poor judgement. In the long term, drinking alcohol can cause: liver damage brain damage. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 14

21 Intermediate 1 Biology Health and Technology Cloze technique consolidation exercise Use the word banks provided to complete the summary notes Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 15

22 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 16

23 1. What is health and technology? The meaning of health There are three sides to health. This is called the health triangle. Social Mental Physical If any one of these is not right then you will feel unhealthy. Healthy Lifestyles A healthy lifestyle would include: eating an appropriate range of foods taking regular exercise taking part in pleasurable activities taking regular relaxation avoiding unnecessary health risks such as smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol and taking drugs. Physiological measurements as indicators of health Taking certain physiological measurements can give an indication of the health of the person. Some measurements would include: temperature body fat blood pressure heart (pulse) rate Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 17

24 These measurements can be taken using high tech and low tech approaches. Physiological Measurement High tech approach Low tech approach Body fat Blood pressure Heart (pulse) rate Thermocouple or thermister Digital body fat sensor Heart rate monitor Thermometer Stethoscope and mercury manometer Finger and stopwatch Comparison of high tech and low tech measurements Physiological measurement Advantage Disadvantage High tech approach Not widely available Low tech approach Easy to use Widely available WORDBANK Digital sphygmomanometer, temperature, pulsometer, skinfold calipers, increased accuracy, less accurate, expensive, inexpensive Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 18

25 2. A Healthy Heart The heart and circulatory system Students must know how to take a pulse rate measurement using a stopwatch and pulsometer. The heart is made of and pumps blood around the body. When the heart muscle it pumps blood through around the body. There are in your heart, which make sure that the blood always flows in the right direction. It is the closing of these valves that gives the sound of the heart beat which can be heard when using a. Diagram of a human heart There are three kinds of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins. carry blood away from the heart, they divide again and again and eventually form very tiny blood vessels called. Capillaries allow nutrients and to pass from the blood to the and allow carbon dioxide and other to leave tissues. The capillaries join up with one another to form large vessels called veins. Veins return blood to the. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 19

26 Diagrams of artery, capillary and vein WORDBANK Vessels, muscle, valves, contracts, capillaries, stethoscope, arteries, wastes, oxygen, heart, tissues Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 20

27 Diagram showing blood flow around the body Pulse rate as a health indicator Each time the beats it pushes blood into our and make them swell out a little. The pressure wave is transmitted to all parts of the body and can be detected as a. Pulse rates are expressed as and give a direct measure of the speed at which your heart is beating. The pulse can be measured using a or. We can find out how fit we are by measuring our pulse rate. This value gives a measure of the efficiency of the heart and circulation. Normal range of pulse rate is between beats per minute. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 21

28 A resting pulse rate means that your heart is having to work hard just to circulate blood around the body and can lead to. A resting pulse rate and a short recovery time (i.e. the time for the pulse rate to return to normal after exercise) can indicate. The resting pulse rate can be reduced by taking. WORDBANK Pulse, beats per minute, heart, pulsometer, arteries, resting, heart rate monitor, low, regular exercise, heart disease, high, fitness Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 22

29 Blood pressure under different conditions Blood pressure is the pressure of our blood in our. This pressure is caused by the pumping action of the heart. Blood pressure can be measured using a. Our blood pressure changes significantly depending on our emotional and physical condition, where the arm is placed during the measurement and how and where the cuff is fastened. Blood pressure is taken as two readings: the first, higher pressure, is caused when the heart and is pushing blood into the arteries. the second, lower pressure, is caused when the heart and is refilling with blood. The blood pressure readings are measured in millimetres of mercury (mmhg) A typical blood pressure of 110 (first reading), 75 (second reading) is written as 110/75. Any reading up to 140/90 is considered to be within the normal range. High blood pressure can be caused by a number of factors: overweight being overweight puts more on the heart which has to work harder lack of incorrect - too much fat and salt in food drinking excessive amounts of. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 23

30 smoking the heart has to work harder because restricts oxygen carrying capacity of red blood cells and nicotine narrows blood vessels High blood pressure increases with age and can lead to a or. Low blood pressure is uncommon but can lead to or can indicate heart failure. Blood tests and blood counts Often it is possible to analyse our blood to give us an indication of the state of our health. This analysis will also be able detect and monitor various illness. Blood tests and cell counts can be used to detect: - iron content and red blood cell numbers are low. Common symptoms are tiredness and a pale complexion. infection the presence of, antibodies in the blood and an increased blood cell count the number of white blood cells is either abnormally high or low the sugar content of the blood is too high and sugar is present in the urine. - types of red blood cells ( A, B, AB, O). WORDBANK Contracts, sphygmomanometer, relaxes, arteries, diet, strain, alcohol, stress, exercise, heart attack, fainting, stroke, carbon monoxide, microbes, leukaemia, anaemia, white, blood groups, diabetes Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 24

31 3. Healthy Lungs The lungs and breathing Our lungs are found inside our and they are situated on either side of the heart. The lungs are spongy, pink in colour and are made up of millions of. The lungs take in into the blood and remove from the blood to the air. Exercise improves the efficiency of in the lungs. A fit person s breathing rate will be than that of an unfit person. A fit person will also have a shorter i.e. it ll take less time for their breathing rate to return to normal after exercise than it will for an unfit person. Diagram of the human respiratory system Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 25

32 The physiological measurements of the lungs The measurement of vital capacity, tidal volume and peak flow allow us to measure the state of the health of our lungs. Vital capacity The vital capacity is the of air we can breathe out after we have taken a deep breath. The vital capacity of a 16 year old female is about 2800cm³ and for a 16 year old male it is about 4000cm³. Tidal volume The tidal volume is the of air breathed in or out from our lungs. This is usually about one tenth of the normal vital capacity. Peak flow The peak flow is a measure of the at which air can be forced from the lungs. The peak flow rate can be used as a measurement of health e.g. it can be used in the diagnosis and management of. The vital capacity, tidal volume and peak flow of a person depends on the age, sex, size and fitness of the person e.g. Age Vital capacity reaches a maximum by the age of 20 Sex have lower vital capacities than. Size The taller you are the greater your vital capacity Fitness gradually increases your vital capacity. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 26

33 Health risks and effects of smoking Smoking increases the risk of and. is a poisonous gas found in cigarette smoke. This gas the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. WORDBANK Oxygen, air sacs, ribcage, carbon dioxide, recovery time, slower, gas exchange, maximum rate, maximum volume, normal volume, males, females, endurance training, cancer, asthma, heart disease, carbon monoxide, reduces Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 27

34 4. A Healthy Body The importance of diet and energy balance The food and drink we eat everyday makes up our diet. A healthy diet contains a balance of all the important nutrients: carbohydrates proteins fats vitamins and minerals fibres water. Energy giving nutrients are found in food like cereal,, potato. found in, margarine and bacon. Body building nutrients are found in fish, and peanuts. Protective nutrients are and minerals found in fresh fruit and. About half the population in Britain are overweight and about one-fifth of them are obese. Someone who is is more likely to suffer from diseases such as coronary heart disease or. There are many reasons why people are overweight but scientists are convinced that a person s diet or eating habits is one of the many factors which determines a person s weight. WORDBANK Fats, bread, carbohydrate, meat, protein, butter, obese, vitamins, diabetes, vegetables Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 28

35 The relationship between fat and health The amount of body fat you have can indicate the health of a person. Being overweight can lead to an increased risk of: heart disease fat can narrow the arteries and cause an increase in blood pressure and heart attacks kidney failure Being underweight can indicate illnesses such as: Body fat can be measured using A skinfold caliper is a device which measures the thickness of a fold of skin with its underlying layer of fat. By doing this at key locations; shown by research to be representative of the total amount of fat on the body, it is possible to estimate the total percentage body fat of a person. The body should have about 20% fat. The normal ranges of body fat are shown in the table below. Age Range Ideal % Body Fat (Years) Females Males up to over Arthritis, cancer, calipers, anorexia, diabetes WORDBANK Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 29

36 The relationship between body temperature and health Students must know how to measure temperature. Our body temperature needs to be kept at a constant temperature between ºC. Our body temperature can alter slightly depending on where it is measured, the time and day and in women, the time of the month (menstrual cycle). A body temperature above can lead to or indicate fever as a result of. A body temperature below indicates. If the temperature of the body falls below 30 C, death can result. Babies and the elderly are particularly at risk. Exercise and the health of muscles Most of the energy obtained from food is used for movement. All movement is brought about by the action of. Muscles can only. When they contract the parts of the body which they are attached to move. After contraction, muscles and return to their original shape. Muscles must work in. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 30

37 Diagram of muscle pairs in the arm: Muscle and endurance are good ways of measuring someone s physical fitness, but not necessarily their general state of health. The size, strength, and efficiency of muscles can be improved through. Muscles respond to regular exercise by growing larger and developing a better blood supply. One way to improve the strength of our muscles is to exercise them regularly. Muscle mass if muscles are not exercised regularly. Muscle (tiredness) can be relieved by relaxation. WORDBANK Hypothermia, fighting infection, 35ºC, heatstroke, 40ºC, contract, pairs muscles, relax, regular exercise, strength, fatigue, decreases Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 31

38 Reaction time as an indicator of health Reaction time is the taken for a person to respond to a certain. Reaction time is a good indicator of health. It can be measured using a or. A slow reaction time can indicate, brain or nervous disorders or arterial disease. Our reaction time can be affected by: drugs reaction time slows down reaction time excitement reaction time Health risks and the effects of alcohol The effects of drinking small amounts of alcohol occasionally are short term and will not harm your body. However, alcohol is a depressant drug, and small amounts can slow down processes in your brain. In the short term, alcohol in the blood leads to: slower time (increase in time taken to react) poor control poor. In the long term, drinking alcohol can cause: damage brain damage WORDBANK Dropped ruler, stimulus, diabetes, time, electronic timer, alcohol, speeds up, slows down, muscle, liver, judgement, reaction Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 32

39 Intermediate 1 Biology Health and Technology Summary Notes Completion Questions Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 33

40 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 34

41 HEALTH AND TECHNOLOGY 1. What is health and technology? Name the three sides of the health triangle. Give three examples of a healthy lifestyle Give four examples of physiological measurements that are taken to give an indication of the health of a person. Physiological measurements can be taken using high tech and low tech approaches. (i) State one advantage and disadvantage of using high tech approaches to measurement. Advantage Disadvantage (ii) State one advantage and disadvantage of using a low tech approach to measurement. Advantage Disadvantage Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 35

42 2. A healthy heart What is the heart made of? What is the function of the heart? What is the function of the heart valves? Which instrument can be used to hear the heartbeat? Blood vessels Name the three types of blood vessel. Which type of blood vessel carries blood away from the heart? Which type of blood vessel allows the exchange of materials between the blood and the body tissues? Name two substances that pass through these blood vessels. Which type of blood vessel carries blood back to the heart? What name is given to the pressure wave caused when the heart pumps blood into our arteries? Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 36

43 Pulse Pulse rate can be measured using a stopwatch. Name two high tech methods of measuring pulse rate. What is the normal range of pulse rate? The resting pulse rate gives a measure of the efficiency of the heart and circulation. What does a high resting pulse rate mean? What is meant by the term recovery time? What does a low resting pulse rate and short recovery time indicate? How can your resting pulse rate be reduced? Blood pressure What is used to measure blood pressure? Blood pressure is taken as two readings. What causes the first higher pressure reading? Describe what is happening to cause the second lower pressure reading. Give a typical blood pressure reading. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 37

44 Up to what reading is considered to be within the normal range? State four factors that can be responsible for causing high blood pressure Describe the relationship between age and high blood pressure. State two dangers or conditions that can arise due to high blood pressure. Low blood pressure can lead to fainting. What else could low blood pressure indicate? Blood tests Blood tests give an indication of the state of our health and can be used to detect and monitor various illnesses. Which two measurements are low in a person with anaemia? In what ways can infection caused by the presence of microbes be shown? Which disease can be indicated by an abnormally high or low white blood cell count? Describe how diabetes could be tested for. Name four blood groups. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 38

45 3. Healthy lungs Describe the position, appearance, structure and function of the lungs. Position Appearance and structure Function What can be done to improve the efficiency of gas exchange in the lungs? Describe the differences in the breathing rate and recovery time of a fit person and an unfit person. Breathing rate Recovery rate Name three physiological measurements that allow us to measure the state of the health of our lungs. What name is given to the maximum volume of air we can breathe out after we have taken a deep breath? What name is given to the normal volume of air breathed in or out from our lungs? What name is given to the maximum rate at which air can be forced from the lungs? The peak flow rate measurement can be used in the diagnosis and management of which condition? Describe how vital capacity depends on the age, sex, size and fitness of an individual. Age Sex Size Fitness Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 39

46 Name two smoking related diseases. Name the poisonous gas found in cigarette smoke. Describe the harmful effect of carbon monoxide. 4. A healthy body Which word is used to describe a diet that contains the correct amount of all the important nutrients? Name the two major food groups responsible for providing our body with energy. Cereals, bread and potatoes are examples of which type of food group? Give three examples of foods that have a high fat content. Why is protein needed in our diet? Name two nutrient groups that have a protective function. What is meant by the term obesity? Name two diseases associated with being overweight? Which two illnesses may be indicated by being underweight? Which instrument is used to measure body fat? Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 40

47 What is the normal range for the temperature of the body? What temperature can lead to heatstroke or indicate fever as a result of fighting infection? At what temperature does hypothermia occur? Which two sections of the population have a greater risk of hypothermia? Movement is bought about by the action of muscles. What term is used to describe the shortening of muscles? What happens when muscles relax? Name three ways in which muscles can be improved through regular exercise. Describe what happens to muscles if they are not exercised regularly? What is meant by the term muscle fatigue? What is meant by the term reaction time? Name a high tech instrument used to measure reaction time. Reaction time is a good indicator of health. Name three diseases/disorders that can be indicated by a slow reaction time. Describe how drugs, alcohol and excitement affect reaction time. Drugs Alcohol Excitement Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 41

48 Describe three short-term effects of alcohol. Name two organs of the body that can be damaged by a large alcohol intake over a long period of time. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 42

49 Intermediate 1 Biology Health and Technology Glossary Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 43

50 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 44

51 UNIT 1: HEALTH AND TECHNOLOGY: KEYWORDS GLOSSARY 1. What is Health and Technology Health triangle Social Mental Physical Thermocouple Thermistor Skinfold calipers Sphygmomanometer Pulsometer Heart rate monitor Diagram used to illustrate the three aspects of health i.e. social, mental and physical. This aspect of health includes being happy and communicating well with family and friends. Network of friends, interests and hobbies. This aspect of health includes coping with stress. This aspect of health includes taking regular exercise and eating well. High tech instrument used to measure temperature. High tech instrument used as a sensitive temperature measuring device. Instrument used to measure body fat. Instrument used to measure blood pressure. Instrument used to measure pulse rate A machine which monitors the heart rate and electrical activity of the heart. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 45

52 2. A Healthy Heart Arteries Capillaries Veins Pulse Recovery time Blood pressure Blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart Tiny blood vessels which connect the arteries to the veins. They allow nutrients and oxygen to pass from the blood to the tissues and allow carbon dioxide and wastes to leave the tissues. Blood vessels which carry blood back to the heart. Pressure wave caused by the heart pumping blood to the arteries. The pulse rate measured in beats per minute is a direct measure of the speed at which the heart is beating. Time taken for the pulse to return to normal after exercise. The pressure of our blood in our arteries. 110/70 Typical blood pressure reading. 110 = pressure when the heart is contracting. 70 = pressure when the heart relaxes. Heart attack Stroke Anaemia Leukaemia Diabetes Antibodies Non medical term for a coronary thrombosis. Brain damage or paralysis due to a blocked or burst blood vessel. A medical condition that makes you feel tired and look pale. Can be caused by a lack of iron which results in having too few red blood cells. Disease of the blood. May be indicated by an abnormally high or low white blood cell count. A condition in which the body cannot control its blood sugar level. It is detected by high blood sugar level or sugar in the urine. Chemicals produced by the white blood cells to fight disease. Antibodies in the blood can indicate infection due to microbes. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 46

53 3. Healthy Lungs Gas Exchange Breathing rate Vital capacity Tidal volume Peak flow Asthma Carbon monoxide The exchange of gas which takes place through the air sacs of our lungs, i.e. oxygen in and carbon dioxide out. The number of breaths per minute. The maximum volume of air breathed in or out from our lungs. The normal volume of air breathed in or out from our lungs. The maximum rate at which air can be forced out from the lungs. It can be used in the diagnosis and management of asthma. Condition which makes breathing difficult. Poisonous gas found in cigarette smoke. It reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 47

54 4. Healthy Body Carbohydrates Proteins Fats Vitamins Minerals Obesity Anorexia Heatstroke Hypothermia Endurance Muscle fatigue Reaction time Energy giving foods such as cereal, bread and potato. Body building food found in fish, meat and peanuts. Energy giving foods found in butter, margarine and bacon. Protective nutrients found in fresh fruit and vegetables needed for the healthy functioning of the body. Protective nutrients needed for the healthy functioning of the body. Found in fresh fruit and vegetables. Extremely fat or overweight. A psychological disorder in which the underweight sufferer considers themselves to be overweight. Condition which results when the body temperature rises above 40ºC. Condition which results due to a drop in body temperature, i.e. below 35ºC. Muscle endurance is the ability of the muscle to withstand a long period of strain or activity. Term used to describe the tiredness of muscles which results due to exercise. The time taken for a person to respond to a certain stimulus. Measured using a dropped ruler or electronic timer. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 48

55 Intermediate 1 Biology Health and Technology Words and Meanings Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 49

56 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 50

57 HEALTH AND TECHNOLOGY WORDSEARCH 1. Health and Technology Complete the following words and meanings table using the words below. Social, mental, physical, thermocouple, thermister, calipers, sphygmomanometer, pulsometer. Word Meanings This aspect of health includes coping with stress. Instrument used to measure body fat. This aspect of health includes taking regular exercise and eating well. Instrument used to measure blood pressure. This aspect of health includes having a network of friends, interests and hobbies. Instrument used to measure pulse rate. High tech instrument used to measure temperature. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 51

58 Health and Technology C A H T E N O E H T E R U O Y S T A Y B T H R Y S I N G S D P I I D L E A U T E C M T A L H R C W E N I M R E H T H E O Y K O L A S A S P R N A H E O G O U P A N T R A U E D S E I M O L L O C T H O D I O R M R O D O O D U I H H W E S T Y S M E W L S D T S E O E E E H O A O S N E I L O Y R P R R J E N T C A I G G C U H M E A N M O W D O E N H I A E P I L E O M M O E U R T A E S R G S E R E D R O T P G L A T N E M T S T E H T R O L N O T O G E S E E S L Y D E V E I V O E H T U R E T E M O M R E H T L R E M M Calipers Mental Physical Pulsometer Social Sphygmomanometer Thermister Thermocouple Thermometer Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 52

59 2. A Health Heart (a) Complete the following words and meanings table using the words below. Arteries, capillaries, veins, pulse, recovery time, heart attack. Word Meanings Blood vessels which carry blood back to the heart. Time taken for the pulse rate to return to normal after exercise. Blood vessels which allow the exchange of materials to take place. The number of times the heart beats per minute. Blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart. Non medical term for a coronary thrombosis. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 53

60 Healthy Heart (a) J E M I T Y R E V O C E R E E K N I V E P A R N T A H O A C M B O B Y G S N I T N N A A E D Y R E E W O M A D P A T H O E H I W N O W V I N P T B V T R O D S A I L U M N A E G E R E E V N L N Y O M T U T L R L O S A I B B Y C R R D F N E E R S A Y M E O A L U A M A I H B O Y D R A E H K R N E E H W B I H N D H E R T S N I E V T T A T S Arteries Capillaries Heart Attack Pulse Recovery Time Veins Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 54

61 3. A Health Heart (b) Complete the following words and meanings table using the words below. Blood pressure, stroke, anaemia, leukemia, diabetes, antibodies. Word Meanings The pressure of blood in our arteries. Brain damage or paralysis due to a blocked or burst blood vessel in the brain. Disease of the blood which might be indicated by an abnormally high or low white blood cell count. Detected by high blood sugar content in the blood or urine. Chemical produced by the white blood cells to fight disease or infection. Can be caused by lack of iron in the diet which results in fewer red blood cells. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 55

62 Healthy Heart (b) D O O K U A L A M I A P E M A D O Y P P A T D L R A A C E P L O E N I A U O D A N T I B O D I E S M P M S N U E K O R T S B I P E A S A F E T T E S O D O A B I A E I K R G E B I N D E D R O M P X I T A C O I O I T O D I R A E N H G O U E D O D E A N B A L I B S T O O E E P S A B O U I O L E U K A E M I A R Q W B O G N A J S N D A I N A Anaemia Antibodies Blood Pressure Diabetes Leukaemia Stroke Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 56

63 4. Healthy Lungs Complete the following words and meanings table using the words below. Gas exchange, breathing rate, vital capacity, tidal volume, peakflow, asthma, carbon monoxide. Word Meanings The normal volume of air breathed in or out of the lungs. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide through the air sacs in the lungs. Poisonous gas found in cigarette smoke which reduces the red blood cells ability to carry oxygen. The maximum rate at which air can be forced out of the lungs. The number of breaths per minute. The maximum volume of air which can be breathed out after taking a deep breath. A condition which makes breathing difficult. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 57

64 Healthy Lungs V I T A L C A P A C I T Y A F C E I V E I N V M E T R E O B E K D O G G E E H T E U B F I D R A I A I T I T A N S E U P M Y L U X C T G S C O T H E T A C V E X O N L A S O N A G R R H O F R W N E C U S K W N U I E L D I E S O B F F A D A T T K U E L L H Z M L N G S H G A M M N Y O E T O N I P I C S B U E S E V N W T U O S V X M Y L L U C S E E C O R B N E O N D N E M N U G K I Y T R S O R E N N I K S Y A Y O B H A T B R E A T H I N G R A T E G C Asthma Breathing Rate Carbon Monoxide Gas Exchange Peak Flow Tidal Volume Vital Capacity Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 58

65 5. Health Body (a) Complete the following words and meanings table using the words below. Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, obesity, anorexia, skin calipers. Word Meanings Energy giving foods such as cereal, bread and potato. Protective nutrients found in fresh fruit and vegetables e.g. A, B, C and D. Condition in which the individual is extremely fat or overweight. Muscle and body building nutrient found in fish, meat and peanuts. Protective nutrients found in fresh fruit and vegetables e.g. iron and calcium. Energy giving foods found in butter, margarine and bacon. A psychological disorder. The underweight sufferer considers themselves to be overweight. Used to measure body fat. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 59

66 Healthy Body (a) C H O L M E S A S N M Y S T A H U N D E R N D C S R A N R T I O P B I Y A T E N O U B N R O Y M O X L P O R Y F O S N I A L P L I I E T T O H I R T A T A L R X E A M R Y F I E P B L G I R A E T I D V Y U E A N A N E I V C S R F S R C I N I S M I N E R A L S N T E E I N A T I V T T I I S B O O G E R A J S F E K O T T E L R A S N O R E S Anorexia Carbohydrates Fats Minerals Obesity Protein Skin callipers Vitamins Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 60

67 5. Health Body (b) Complete the following words and meanings table using the words below. Heatstroke, hypothermia, endurance, fatigue, reaction time, liver, thermometer. Word Meanings Condition which results when the body temperature rises above 40 C. Condition which results due to a drop in body temperature below 35 C. Time taken for a person to respond to certain stimulus. Ability for muscles to withstand a long period of strain or activity. Term used to describe the tiredness of muscles which results due to exercise. Used to measure body temperature. An organ which can be damaged by drinking too much alcohol over a long period of time. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 61

68 Healthy Body (b) E M I T N O I T C A E R H R E V I L E M P I R E Y D E E F T R E V I L E P O A T C O N A D S S U O B C D E N R U L I C B T R O T I M A R H L M S H Y M S I S O R E H A C E J A M E S K M U D H S R U U L R A E O R D E T M I B J G O N E N E N N I R A M T H I O S A H E A T S T R O K E T R V T K R A S N Y I W T S A A K N A B D N A R G V O L F Endurance Fatigue Heatstroke Hypothermia Liver Reaction Time Thermometer Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 62

69 Intermediate 1 Biology Biotechnological Industries Student Summary Notes Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 63

70 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 64

71 1. Dairy Industries Milk Milk is an important food for most British people. Milk contains fat, protein, sugar, vitamins and minerals. Milk is available to us in a great variety of forms such as pasteurised, evaporated, semiskimmed, skimmed and UHT. The milk all comes from dairy cows, but is treated differently to produce all these different types. Milk is an important part of a balanced diet. It contains many important nutrients and because of this it is also an ideal place for bacteria to grow. To kill bacteria all our milk is heat-treated in some way. The heat treatment should kill all the harmful bacteria. Microbial tests are carried out on milk to test if it is fit for human consumption. The resazurin test is carried out to demonstrate the presence of bacteria. All milk is tested using a resazurin dye test to make sure that it is fit to drink before it reaches our doorsteps or supermarket shelves. The resazurin dye test 1. 3cm³ of resazurin is added to 3cm³ of milk and then placed in a water bath for 20 minutes. 2. The colour of the solution is recorded every 2 minutes. 3. The colour after 20 minutes indicates the quality of the milk. Colour of sample after 20 minutes Remains purple Becomes mauve Becomes pink Becomes clear Milk quality Good Satisfactory Poor Unfit for consumption Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 65

72 heat treatment There are 2 main forms of heat treatment: 1. Pasteurisation Pasteurisation is the most widely used heat-treatment. 86% of the milk sold in this country is pasteurised. The milk is first heated to 72 C for at least 15 seconds. It is then quickly cooled to a temperature below 10 C. It is then packaged in bottles, cartons or containers and distributed. Pasteurised milk will keep for up to five days if it is stored in a fridge. 2. Ultra High Temperature (UHT) UHT milk is heated to a higher temperature than pasteurised milk. UHT milk is heated to between 135 C and 142 C for 2 to 5 seconds. This processing alters the taste of the milk. Fat content of milk Milk can also be graded by its fat content so that we can buy skimmed milk, evaporated milk etc. Whole milk has had none of the fat removed. Semi-skimmed has had around half of the fat removed. Skimmed milk has had almost all the fat removed. Evaporated milk has had about half of the water removed from the milk and is used in a similar way to cream. When the fat is removed from the milk there is also a reduction in vitamins such as Vitamin A. For this reason it is not advisable to give skimmed or semi-skimmed milk to young children. Another method of preserving milk is to convert it into yoghurt or cheese. These natural yoghurts can be used as the starter culture to allow us to make yoghurt in the lab. Method 1. Milk is heated to 43ºC to encourage yoghurt bacteria to grow teaspoon of the starter culture is added and covered with cling film. 3. The yoghurt is incubated at 43ºC for 7 hours. 4. Once formed it is cooled in the fridge for 4 hours. The starter cultures contain bacteria. When the bacteria grow they make lactic acid from the sugar in the milk. The lactic acid gives the yoghurt its taste and makes the milk thicker. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 66

73 Cheese There are several steps in the manufacture of cheese: the milk is pasteurised to kill most of the bacteria special bacteria are added to convert the milk sugar into lactic acid enzymes are added to clot the proteins in milk. The milk clotting enzymes (rennet), which were used originally, always came from animals such as calves. Nowadays the enzymes used in cheese making can come from a variety of different sources. calf rennet Rennet obtained from calves Advantages: used successfully for hundreds of years. Disadvantages: an animal product involving slaughter of animals and possible risk of disease. fungal rennet An enzyme which is similar to rennet but which is produced by a fungus. Advantages: cheap, large amounts produced, accepted by vegetarians. Disadvantages: taste GM yeast rennet An enzyme which is produced by yeast which have been genetically modified to produce rennet. Advantages: does not involve animals, approved by vegetarians, rennet produced is identical to animal rennet. Disadvantages: public concern about GM foods Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 67

74 Environmental Impact: Monitoring waste When cheese is made, the enzyme rennet causes the milk proteins to clot. These solids are called the curds. The liquid left after the protein clots is called the whey. The whey contains sugars. If the whey was released untreated into the rivers the bacteria would use the sugars as a food source, reproduce and increase in number. These bacteria would use up the oxygen in the rivers and there would be less oxygen available for the fish and all the other living organisms. To protect the environment the whey must either be treated before it is released into the rivers or it must be used for something else (upgraded). The whey can be treated by using bacteria which feed on the whey to turn it into carbondioxide and water. The bacteria are then removed and the cleaner water is discharged into the river. The river water is tested to make sure that the oxygen level is satisfactory. Upgrading whey Whey can be used as a medium for growing yeast. The whey can be used in industry. Some types of yeast feed on whey and if they are given the right conditions they change the sugars in the whey into alcohol. This type of alcohol is creamy and is found in products such as Baileys Irish Cream. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 68

75 2. Yeast Industries Bread Yeast is a one-celled fungus. For thousands of years humans have been using yeast to make bread. Yeast is added to flour to make the dough rise. Both dried yeast and fresh yeast is used in baking. Yeast is a living organism and when it respires it gives out carbon-dioxide. It is this gas from the yeast which makes the bread rise. Pure cultures of yeast cells can be grown in huge numbers in large vessels called fermenters. The yeast can then be used by the baking industry to make bread or by the brewing industry to make beer. Beer Beer is an alcoholic drink made from water, barley, sugar, hops and yeast. In Britain today there are over 1200 different brands of beer. Each brand is different and has its own flavour. Around half the beer which is drunk is today is lager and the other half is bitter, ale and stout. Different beers are brewed in different ways and they have different alcohol contents. When beer is being made it is the yeast which uses the sugars and converts them into alcohol. When this happens the yeast also produce large amounts of the gas carbon-dioxide and this will make the beer fizzy. Ales and lagers are brewed with different strains of yeast. These yeasts use the sugars at different temperatures and at different rates. Ale yeasts grow for six days at a temperature of C and they rise to the top of the vessel in which they are growing. Lager yeasts grow at only 8-12 C for about 3 weeks and sink to the bottom of the vessel in which they are growing. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 69

76 All beer must be matured before it can be drunk. Maturing the beer improves its flavour, removes any solid material and gives it its sparkle. The beer is either cask conditioned often called real ale - or brewery conditioned keg beers, bottles and cans. Cask conditioned beer Brewery conditioned beer Example of beer produced Real ale keg beers bottles cans Storage Conditions Casks of wood or steel Yeast still present and provided with sugar to feed on Large tanks Yeast and solid materials removed Description of beer Fermented milk drinks Dark coloured Highly flavoured Clear and bright Has a longer shelf life In many countries it is difficult to keep milk and yoghurt fresh. One way of solving this problem is to ferment the milk slightly to make it alcoholic. Yeast is used to turn the sugars in the milk into alcohol. In some areas of the world a drink called kefir is made in this way. Drinking kefir is like drinking a refreshing, fizzy, slightly alcoholic, yoghurt drink. Immobilisation This is a technique used to trap an enzyme and some yeast into a jelly bead and can be used in the production of fermented milk drinks such as kefir. Method 1. A solution of sodium alginate is used to trap the enzyme and/or yeast to make a jelly bead. 2. The beads are then hardened by dropping them into a solution of calcium chloride. This is an important method because after the reaction the beads can be separated from the end product, washed and used again. This saves money because the enzymes can be very expensive. The bead can be easily separated from the product. This would not be possible if the enzyme and the yeast were free in the yoghurt drink rather than trapped in a bead. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 70

77 Food flavouring In addition to using yeast for making bread and alcoholic drinks, yeast can be used for flavouring food. Some examples of foods which have yeast flavourings added are soups crisps and snacks. Meat flavoured crisps e.g. chicken, bacon, beef. Oxo cubes Marmite Food colouring Wild salmon and trout have pink flesh from the pink coloured prawns and shrimps which they eat. Farmed salmon and trout would be a dull grey colour if they were not fed a red dye in their diet just before they are killed. The dye does not affect the way that the fish tastes and it is only added because people do not want to eat grey salmon or trout. It is now possible to give the salmon a red colour by feeding them red yeast. The fish then take on a pink colour in their flesh. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 71

78 Environmental Impact: Monitoring waste Waste from the yeast based industries has the same effect on rivers as whey. It is very important that the waste from yeast industries is not released into rivers. The yeast would provide food for bacteria and the rivers would become polluted ie the bacteria would reproduce and increase in number which would result in a reduction in oxygen available for other organisms. Yeast industries treat all their waste and much of it is upgraded and used for animal feed. The yeast are fed on waste products and then processed to make animal feed eg cattle cake. This means that the water leaving the factory can be put into the river without causing pollution. Before the water is put into the river it is tested to make sure that it will not cause pollution. The Methylene Blue Test 1. Three drops of methylene blue dye is added to 15 cm³ of the water sample. 2. The sample is kept airtight and the colour is recorded over a period of 4-5 days. Time Colour change Water Condition Pollution Scale Immediate Blue to clear Dangerous to put into river Very polluted 2-3 days Blue to clear Dangerous to put into river Very polluted 4-5 days Blue to clear Needs further treatment before Slightly polluted release into river 4-5 days Still blue Safe to be released into river Not polluted Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 72

79 3. Detergent Industries Biological washing powders The word detergent means something which cleans. So it includes soaps, washing up liquid and washing powder. Some washing powders are known as biological washing powders. Biological washing powders contain enzymes. Enzymes are produced in fermenters and are added to the washing powder because they improve the way in which it cleans. In a biological washing powder only about 1% of the powder is enzymes. The remaining part of the powder contains things such as water softeners, bleach and chemicals which act at the surface to help the water to get into the clothes. The enzymes found in washing powder are produced in large quantities by bacteria. Bacteria are tiny living organisms found in almost every place on earth. Scientists have looked at hundreds of bacteria until they found ones which were harmless and which produce enzymes. Once they found the right bacteria they then had to produce huge quantities of them. Bacteria grow very rapidly if they are given the right conditions. The bacteria used to produce washing powder enzymes are grown (cultured) in huge industrial fermenters. At the end of the process the enzymes have to be separated from the bacterial cells. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 73

80 The use of enzymes in washing powders The enzymes in washing powders digest the stains in the same way that enzymes in your gut help to digest your food. Different enzymes are added to digest different stains. For example fat digesting enzymes are added to digest fatty stains and starch digesting enzymes are added to digest starchy stains. The enzymes themselves make up a very small part of the powder but they make up a large part of the cleaning power of the powder. When powders containing enzymes first came into the shops some people found that the had an allergic reaction to the powder causing skin rashes, eczema and asthma. Once this was discovered the detergent industry introduced new powders where the enzymes had been enclosed in a harmless coating to prevent allergic reactions. Enzymes in washing powders are now all coated with a waxy substance and they form granules. The addition of enzymes to washing powders means that we can all have cleaner clothes as the stains are digested. Another major benefit is that these biological powders work best at low temperatures and this saves energy. In the past before enzymes were added to washing powders the temperature of the water had to be much higher before the clothes would become clean. The enzymes in the biological washing powders work best at temperatures of between 40 C and about 55 C. The enzymes are destroyed at temperatures above 60 C. The lower temperatures used in washing with biological powders are also kinder on clothes as high temperatures can damage delicate fabrics. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 74

81 Environmental Impact: Monitoring waste Energy is used in all parts of the production, packaging and transporting of detergents but by far the greatest use of energy is in the home of the consumer. Heating the water for the washing machine, the wash cycle, tumble drying and ironing all use up energy. This means that it costs the consumer a lot of money and has a great impact on the environment. NB To provide all the electricity and energy needed by the consumer the power stations burn coal, oil and gas which give off gases such as carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide which damage the environment. Washing clothes at low temperatures is a very important part of saving energy. Less fuel will be used and this is good news for the consumer and for the environment. Detergents all end up in the environment when they are flushed away as waste water. Detergents can be toxic to wildlife. The manufacturers test their products to see that they would not harm the fish or the other living organisms found in our rivers. Detergents containing phosphates and sulphates will pollute rivers. This will cause tiny plants called algae to bloom (to reproduce). When the algae die, bacteria feed on them, increase in number and use up the oxygen. As a result other animals such as fish die. The detergent industries have their own mini sewage plants where they check what happens to the ingredients in the detergents when they pass through the sewage works. Sewage plants could remove the phosphates and sulphates to reduce their environmental impact. The environmental impact of releasing detergents can also be reduced by using low phosphate detergents. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 75

82 4. Pharmaceutical Industries Antibiotics Antibiotics are produced by soil fungi to prevent the growth of competing bacteria. Antibiotics are compounds which kill bacteria. They were discovered by Alexander Fleming. There are many different types of antibiotic. One of the most common antibiotics is known as penicillin. Around the time of the Second World War two other British scientists (Florey and Chain) managed to produce penicillin on an industrial scale. Antibiotics then became known as the wonder drug because they cured so many people who would have previously died. Antibiotics can kill bacteria but not viruses so they might help you if you have a strep throat but not if you have a cold or flu. To meet the massive demand for antibiotics in the modern world, huge fermenters holding over 200,000 litres have been designed. Careful attention has been paid to produce the best growth conditions. The vessels are automated and controlled by computers to provide the correct temperature, ph, oxygen concentration and food supply Sterile conditions must be maintained in the fermenter. Growth conditions are altered automatically by the computers for example if the temperature in the fermenter becomes too warm the computer detects the change and cools down the mixture. Finally the antibiotic has to be purified - this involves filtering and solvent extraction. Genetic modification is a new technology which alters the genes found in living things e.g. the gene for penicillin is inserted into bacteria which are then grown in fermenters to produce large quantities of penicillin. Genetic modification can be used to produce new antibiotics which will be more effective for fighting disease. Different antibiotics are effective against different infections. Penicillin is used to treat a wide range of infections including respiratory infections. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 76

83 When antibiotics first appeared they were considered to be the wonder drugs but after some time it was found that some infections became resistant to the antibiotic. This means that the drug no longer kills the bacteria which is causing the infection. This has happened because of over-use of penicillin and it is a very worrying trend. People are now also concerned about the over-use of antibiotics in agriculture and veterinary practice. The same drugs are used in animals as in humans and the concern is that over-use of antibiotics in animals might lead to more resistant strains of bacteria. There is continual pressure to try to produce new antibiotics which bacteria are not resistant to. Anti-fungals Some infections are caused by microbes known as fungi. Some common fungal infections are athletes foot and thrush. Drugs known as anti-fungals can be used to treat these infections. The anti-fungal treatment slows down or stops the growth of the infection. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 77

84 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 78

85 Intermediate 1 Biology Biotechnological Industries Cloze Technique Consolidation Exercise Use the wordbanks provided to complete the summary notes Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 79

86 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 80

87 1. Dairy Industries Milk Milk is an important food for most British people. Milk contains,, sugar, and minerals. Milk is available to us in a great variety of forms such as, evaporated,, skimmed and. The milk all comes from dairy cows, but is treated differently to produce all these different types. Milk is an important part of a balanced diet. It contains many important nutrients and because of this it is also an ideal place for bacteria to grow. To kill bacteria all our milk is in some way. The heat treatment should kill all the bacteria. Microbial tests are carried out on milk to test if it is fit for human consumption. The test is carried out to demonstrate the presence of bacteria All milk is tested using a resazurin dye test to make sure that it is fit to drink before it reaches our doorsteps or supermarket shelves. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 81

88 The resazurin dye test 1. 3cm³ of resazurin is added to 3cm³ of milk and then placed in a for 20 minutes. 2. The of the solution is recorded every 2 minutes. 3. The colour after 20 minutes indicates the of the milk. Colour of sample after 20 minutes Remains Becomes mauve Becomes pink Becomes Milk quality Good Satisfactory Poor Unfit for consumption WORDBANK Pasteurised, protein, heat treated, fat, resazurin, semi skimmed, vitamins, harmful, UHT, quality, clear, water bath, purple, colour Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 82

89 Heat treatment There are 2 main forms of heat treatment: 1. Pasteurisation Pasteurisation is the most widely used heat-treatment. 86% of the milk sold in this country is pasteurised. The milk is first heated to for at least. It is then quickly cooled to a temperature below. It is then packaged in bottles, cartons or containers and distributed. Pasteurised milk will keep for up to five days if it is stored in a fridge. 2. Ultra High Temperature (UHT) UHT milk is heated to a higher temperature than pasteurised milk. UHT milk is heated to between and for to. This processing alters the of the milk. WORDBANK 135ºC, 72ºC, 5 seconds, 2, 15 seconds, 10ºC, taste, 142ºC Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 83

90 Fat content of milk Milk can also be graded by its content so that we can buy skimmed milk, evaporated milk etc. milk has had none of the fat removed. has had around half of the fat removed. milk has had almost all the fat removed. milk has had about half of the water removed from the milk and is used in a similar way to cream. When the fat is removed from the milk there is also a reduction in vitamins such as. For this reason it is not advisable to give skimmed or semi-skimmed milk to. Another method of milk is to convert it into or. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 84

91 Yoghurt The yoghurt which we buy in the shops may be set or stirred. yoghurt is inoculated with bacteria, made in bulk and then put into pots. yoghurt is inoculated with bacteria and incubated in the pot in which it is sold. You can also find different types of natural yoghurt some of which are known as. WORDBANK Vitamin A, skimmed, whole, fat, evaporated, young children, semi-skimmed, cheese, stirred, preserving, set, bio-yoghurt, yoghurt Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 85

92 These natural yoghurts can be used as the to allow us to make yoghurt in the lab. Method 2. Milk is heated to 43ºC to encourage yoghurt to grow teaspoon of the starter culture is added and covered with cling film. 4. The yoghurt is incubated at 43ºC for 7 hours. 5. Once formed it is cooled in the fridge for 4 hours. The starter cultures contain bacteria. When the bacteria grow they make lactic acid from the in the milk. The. gives the yoghurt its taste and makes the milk WORDBANK Lactic acid, sugar, starter culture, thicker, bacteria. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 86

93 Cheese There are several steps in the manufacture of cheese: the milk is to kill most of the bacteria special bacteria are added to convert the milk sugar into. enzymes are added to clot the in milk. The milk clotting enzymes ( ), which were used originally, always came from animals such as calves. Nowadays the enzymes used in cheese making can come from a variety of different sources: Rennet Rennet obtained from calves Advantages: Disadvantages: used successfully for hundreds of years. an product involving slaughter of animals and possible risk of disease. Rennet An enzyme which is similar to rennet but which is produced by a fungus. Advantages:, large amounts produced, accepted by vegetarians. Disadvantages: taste. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 87

94 Rennet An enzyme which is produced by yeast which have been to produce rennet. Advantages: does not involve animals, approved by vegetarians, rennet produced is identical to animal rennet. Disadvantages: about GM foods WORDBANK Genetically modified, public concern, pasteurised, rennet, lactic acid, calf, proteins, fungal, animal, cheap, GM Yeast Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 88

95 Environmental Impact: Monitoring waste When cheese is made, the enzyme rennet causes the milk proteins to clot. These solids are called the. The liquid left after the protein clots is called the. The whey contains. If the whey was released untreated into the rivers the would use the sugars as a food source, and in number. These bacteria would use up the in the rivers and there would be less oxygen available for the fish and all the other living organisms. To protect the environment the whey must either be treated before it is released into the rivers or it must be used for something else ( ). The whey can be treated by using bacteria which feed on the whey to turn it into and water. The bacteria are then removed and the cleaner water is discharged into the river. The river water is tested to make sure that the oxygen level is satisfactory. Upgrading whey Whey can be used as a medium for growing. The whey can be used in industry. Some types of yeast feed on whey and if they are given the right conditions they change the sugars in the whey into. This type of alcohol is creamy and is found in products such as Baileys Irish Cream. WORDBANK Bacteria, curds, oxygen, reproduce, sugars, upgraded, whey, increase, alcohol, yeast, water Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 89

96 2. Yeast Industries Bread Yeast is a one-celled. For thousands of years humans have been using yeast to make. Yeast is added to flour to make the dough. Both dried yeast and fresh yeast is used in baking. Yeast is a living organism and when it respires it gives out. It is this gas from the yeast which makes the bread rise. Pure cultures of yeast cells can be grown in huge numbers in large vessels called. The yeast can then be used by the baking industry to make bread or by the brewing industry to make. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 90

97 Beer Beer is an alcoholic drink made from water,,, hops and. In Britain today there are over 1200 different brands of beer. Each brand is different and has its own flavour. Around half the beer which is drunk is today is lager and the other half is bitter, ale and stout. Different beers are brewed in different ways and they have different alcohol contents. When beer is being made it is the yeast which uses the sugars and converts them into. When this happens the yeast also produce large amounts of the gas carbon-dioxide and this will make the beer. Ales and lagers are brewed with different strains of yeast. These yeasts use the sugars at different temperatures and at different rates. yeasts grow for six days at a temperature of C and they to the top of the vessel in which they are growing. yeasts grow at only 8-12 C for about 3 weeks and to the bottom of the vessel in which they are growing. WORDBANK Carbon dioxide, rise, fermenters, bread, fungus, yeast, beer, fizzy, sugar, lager, alcohol, barley, rise, ale, sink, Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 91

98 All beer must be matured before it can be drunk. Maturing the beer improves its flavour, removes any solid material and gives it its sparkle. The beer is either cask conditioned often called real ale - or brewery conditioned keg beers, bottles and cans. beer Example of beer produced Real ale keg beers bottles cans Storage Conditions Casks of wood or steel Yeast still present and provided with sugar to feed on Description of beer Fermented milk drinks Dark coloured Highly flavoured beer Large tanks Yeast and solid materials removed Clear and bright Has a longer shelf life In many countries it is difficult to keep milk and yoghurt fresh. One way of solving this problem is to the milk slightly to make it alcoholic. Yeast is used to turn the in the milk into alcohol. In some areas of the world a drink called kefir is made in this way. Drinking kefir is like drinking a refreshing, fizzy, slightly alcoholic, yoghurt drink. Immobilisation This is a technique used to trap an and some yeast into a bead and can be used in the production of fermented milk drinks such as kefir. Method 1. A solution of is used to trap the enzyme and/or yeast to make a jelly bead. 2. The beads are then hardened by dropping them into a solution of. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 92

99 This is an important method because after the reaction the beads can be from the, washed and used again. This saves because the enzymes can be very expensive. The bead can be easily separated from the product. This would not be possible if the enzyme and the yeast were free in the yoghurt drink rather than trapped in a bead. WORDBANK Ferment, enzyme, cask conditioned, sugars, brewery conditioned, jelly, money, sodium alginate, separated, calcium chloride, end product Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 93

100 Food flavouring In addition to using yeast for making bread and alcoholic drinks, yeast can be used for food. Some examples of foods which have yeast flavourings added are soups and snacks. flavoured crisps e.g. chicken, bacon, beef. cubes Marmite Food colouring Wild salmon and trout have pink flesh from the pink coloured and which they eat. salmon and trout would be a dull grey colour if they were not fed a in their diet just before they are killed. The dye does not affect the way that the fish tastes and it is only added because people do not want to eat grey salmon or trout. It is now possible to give the salmon a red colour by feeding them red. The fish then take on a pink colour in their flesh. WORDBANK Farmed, prawns, yeast, flavouring, red dye, shrimps, Oxo, crisps, meat Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 94

101 Environmental Impact: Monitoring waste Waste from the yeast based industries has the same effect on rivers as whey. It is very important that the waste from yeast industries is not released into rivers. The yeast would provide food for and the rivers would become polluted ie the bacteria would and in number which would result in a reduction in available for other organisms. Yeast industries treat all their waste and much of it is and used for animal feed. The yeast are fed on waste products and then processed to make animal feed eg. This means that the water leaving the factory can be put into the river without causing. Before the water is put into the river it is tested to make sure that it will not cause pollution. The Methylene Blue Test 3. Three drops of methylene blue dye is added to 15 cm³ of the water sample. 4. The sample is kept airtight and the colour is recorded over a period of 4-5 days. Time Colour change Water Condition Pollution Scale Immediate Blue to clear Dangerous to put into river 2-3 days Blue to clear Very polluted 4-5 days Blue to clear Needs further treatment before Slightly polluted release into river 4-5 days Still blue WORDBANK Upgraded, reproduce, bacteria, oxygen, very polluted, safe to be released into river, cattle cake, increase, not polluted, dangerous to be put into river, pollution Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 95

102 3. Detergent Industries Biological washing powders The word means something which cleans. So it includes soaps, washing up liquid and washing powder. Some washing powders are known as washing powders. Biological washing powders contain. Enzymes are produced in and are added to the washing powder because they improve the way in which it cleans. In a biological washing powder only about 1% of the powder is enzymes. The remaining part of the powder contains things such as water softeners, and chemicals which act at the surface to help the water to get into the clothes. The enzymes found in washing powder are produced in large quantities by. Bacteria are tiny living organisms found in almost every place on earth. Scientists have looked at hundreds of bacteria until they found ones which were and which produce enzymes. Once they found the right bacteria they then had to produce huge quantities of them. Bacteria grow very rapidly if they are given the right conditions. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 96

103 The bacteria used to produce washing powder enzymes are grown ( ) in huge fermenters. At the end of the process the enzymes have to be from the bacterial cells. WORDBANK Enzymes, bacteria, detergent, bleach, harmless, biological, cultured, separated, industrial, fermenters Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 97

104 The use of enzymes in washing powders The enzymes in washing powders the stains in the same way that enzymes in your gut help to digest your food. Different enzymes are added to digest different stains. For example enzymes are added to digest fatty stains and enzymes are added to digest starchy stains. The enzymes themselves make up a very small part of the powder but they make up a large part of the cleaning power of the powder. When powders containing enzymes first came into the shops some people found that the had an reaction to the powder causing skin rashes, and. Once this was discovered the detergent industry introduced new powders where the enzymes had been enclosed in a to prevent allergic reactions. Enzymes in washing powders are now all coated with a substance and they form granules. The addition of enzymes to washing powders means that we can all have cleaner clothes as the stains are digested. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 98

105 Another major benefit is that these biological powders work best at temperatures and this saves. In the past before enzymes were added to washing powders the temperature of the water had to be much before the clothes would become clean. The enzymes in the biological washing powders work best at temperatures of between 40 C and about 55 C. The enzymes are at temperatures above 60 C. The lower temperatures used in washing with biological powders are also kinder on clothes as high temperatures can damage fabrics. WORDBANK Eczema, waxy, harmless coating, starch digesting, allergic, low, digest, energy, higher, fat digesting, asthma, destroyed, delicate Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 99

106 Environmental Impact: Monitoring waste Energy is used in all parts of the production, packaging and transporting of detergents but by far the greatest use of energy is in the home of the consumer. Heating the water for the washing machine, the wash cycle, tumble drying and ironing all use up. This means that it costs the consumer a lot of and has a great impact on the environment. NB To provide all the electricity and energy needed by the consumer the power stations burn coal, oil and gas which give off gases such as carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide which damage the environment. Washing clothes at temperatures is a very important part of saving energy. Less fuel will be used and this is good news for the consumer and for the environment. Detergents all end up in the environment when they are flushed away as waste water. Detergents can be to wildlife. The manufacturers their products to see that they would not the fish or the other living organisms found in our rivers. Detergents containing and sulphates will pollute rivers. This will cause tiny plants called to bloom (to reproduce).when the algae die, feed on them, in number and use up the. As a result other animals such as fish die. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 100

107 The detergent industries have their own mini plants where they check what happens to the ingredients in the detergents when they pass through the sewage works. Sewage plants could the phosphates and sulphates to reduce their environmental impact. The environmental impact of releasing detergents can also be reduced by using phosphate detergents. WORDBANK Toxic, money, harm, energy, test, low, oxygen, phosphates, increase, algae, bacteria, low, sewage, remove Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 101

108 4. Pharmaceutical Industries Antibiotics Antibiotics are produced by. to prevent the growth of competing bacteria. Antibiotics are compounds which kill. They were discovered by.. There are many different types of antibiotic. One of the most common antibiotics is known as. Around the time of the Second World War two other British scientists (Florey and Chain) managed to produce penicillin on an industrial scale. Antibiotics then became known as the because they cured so many people who would have previously died. Antibiotics can kill bacteria but not so they might help you if you have a strep throat but not if you have a cold or flu. To meet the massive demand for antibiotics in the modern world, huge holding over 200,000 litres have been designed. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 102

109 Careful attention has been paid to produce the best growth conditions The vessels are and controlled by to provide the correct, ph, concentration and food supply conditions must be maintained in the fermenter. Growth conditions are altered automatically by the computers for example if the temperature in the fermenter becomes too warm the computer detects the change and cools down the mixture. Finally the antibiotic has to be - this involves filtering and solvent extraction. WORDBANK Penicillin, bacteria, viruses, Alexander Fleming, soil fungi, oxygen, automated, wonder drug, computers, temperature, purified, fermenters, sterile Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 103

110 is a new technology which alters the genes found in living things e.g. the gene for penicillin is inserted into a which are then grown in fermenters to produce large quantities of penicillin. Genetic modification can be used to produce new antibiotics which will be more effective for fighting disease. Different antibiotics are effective against different infections. Penicillin is used to treat a wide range of infections including infections. When antibiotics first appeared they were considered to be the wonder drugs but after some time it was found that some infections became to the antibiotic. This means that the drug no longer kills the bacteria which is causing the infection. This has happened because of of penicillin and it is a very worrying trend. People are now also concerned about the over-use of antibiotics in and veterinary practice. The same drugs are used in animals as in humans and the concern is that over-use of antibiotics in animals might lead to more resistant strains of bacteria. There is continual pressure to try to produce new antibiotics which bacteria are not resistant to. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 104

111 Anti-fungals Some infections are caused by microbes known as. Some common fungal infections are and. Drugs known as can be used to treat these infections. The anti-fungal treatment slows down or stops the growth of the infection. WORDBANK Fungi, agriculture, thrush, resistant, anti-fungals, over-use, athletes foot Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 105

112 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 106

113 Intermediate 1 Biology Biotechnological Industries Summary Notes Completion Questions Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 107

114 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 108

115 BIOTECHNOLOGICAL INDUSTRIES 1. Dairy industries Milk Why is milk an important food? Name five different forms in which milk is available to us. Why must milk be heat-treated? Name a microbial test carried out to demonstrate the presence of bacteria. Complete the following table. Colour of sample after 20 mins Milk quality Good Becomes mauve Becomes pink Unfit for consumption What name is given to the most widely used form of heat treatment? Describe how this process is carried out. Why must milk treated in this way still be stored in a fridge? Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 109

116 What do the three letters UHT stand for? Describe how this process is carried out. Why does UHT milk have a longer shelf life? What is altered during this process? What name is given to milk in which none of the fat has been removed? What name is given to milk that has had almost all the fat removed? Describe how evaporated milk is produced. Why is it not advisable to give skimmed or semi-skimmed milk to young children? Name two dairy products produced as a means of preserving milk. Yoghurt Which group of micro-organisms is used in the production of yoghurt? Name the acid produced from the milk sugar that gives the yoghurt its taste and makes the milk thicker. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 110

117 Cheese What name is given to the milk clotting enzymes used in the production of cheese? Name three different sources of the enzymes used in cheese making. During cheese production the enzymes cause the milk proteins to clot. What name is given to these solids? What name is given to the liquid left after the protein clots? Explain what would happen if untreated whey was released into a river. Describe how whey can be treated before releasing it into the rivers. Describe the process of upgrading whey. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 111

118 2. Yeast industries Bread To which group of organisms does yeast belong? Why is yeast added to flour? Which gas is produced when yeast respires? What name is given to the large vessels that can be used to grow huge numbers of pure cultures of yeast cells? Beer Name the five ingredients used to make beer. During beer production which substance is produced from the sugar by the yeast? Which gas given off by the yeast makes the beer fizzy? Which yeast grows at a temperature of C and rise to the top of the vessel? Which yeasts grow at only 8-12 C and sink to the bottom of the vessel? Why is beer matured before it is drunk? Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 112

119 Beer is either cask conditioned or brewery conditioned. Complete the following table. Cask conditioned beer Brewery conditioned beer Example of beer produced Storage conditions Description of beer Fermented milk drinks Why do some countries produce fermented milk drinks? Name a fermented milk drink. What name is given to the technique of trapping an enzyme and some yeast into a jelly bead? Which chemical is used to trap the enzyme and/or yeast to make a jelly bead? Why are the beads then dropped into a solution of calcium chloride? State one advantage of using this technique. In addition to making bread and alcoholic drinks, name two other uses of yeast. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 113

120 Salmon farming Why do wild salmon and trout have pink flesh? What two ways can be used to give farmed salmon a red colour? Describe the effect on the following, if waste from the yeast-based industries was released into the rivers: The bacteria The oxygen concentration The other organisms Describe one method of upgrading yeast. Name the test carried out on water to establish the oxygen demand of water that has been contaminated or polluted with yeast. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 114

121 3. Detergent industries Enzymes What is meant by the term detergent? What name is given to washing powders that contain enzymes? Why are enzymes added to some washing powders? Apart from enzymes, name three other substances present in these washing powders. Name a group of micro-organisms responsible for producing the enzymes used in washing powders. What name is given to the vessels used to culture these micro-organisms? In what way are the enzymes in washing powders similar to the enzymes in your gut? Why are enzymes added to washing powders? Name three allergic reactions that could result from the enzymes in washing powders. What is done to the enzymes in washing powders to prevent the causing an allergic reaction? At what temperature do the enzymes in biological washing powders work best? What happens to enzymes at room temperatures above 60 C? Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 115

122 Washing clothes at low temperatures is good news for both the consumer and the environment. Complete the following sentences. The consumer benefits because The environment benefits because Explain the advantage of washing delicate fabrics at a low temperature. Chemical pollution Name two groups of chemicals, present in some detergents that pollute rivers. These chemicals act as fertilisers. What term is used to describe the resulting population explosion of the algae? Describe what happens when the algae die? State two methods of preventing or reducing this form of pollution? 4. Pharmaceutical industries Antibiotics Why do soil fungi produce antibiotics? Name a common antibiotic? Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 116

123 Name the scientist credited with discovering antibiotics. Which two other British scientists succeeded in producing penicillin on an industrial scale? Why did antibiotics become known as the wonder drug? Why do antibiotics not work if you have a cold or flu? What has been done to meet the massive demand for antibiotics in the modern world? Vessels used in the production of antibiotics are automated and controlled by computers. Name four conditions that are monitored to provide the best growth conditions. Why must sterile conditions be maintained in the fermenter? What is the name given to the technology that alters the genes found in living things? Why is technology important in the antibiotic industry? What is meant by the term antibiotic resistance? Why are people concerned about the overuse of antibiotics in agriculture and veterinary practice? Antifungals Antifungal chemicals slow down or stop the growth of infections caused by fungi. Name two common fungal infections. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 117

124 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 118

125 Intermediate 1 Biology Biotechnological Industries Glossary Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 119

126 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 120

127 UNIT 2: BIOTECHNOLOGICAL INDUSTRIES: KEYWORDS GLOSSARY 1. Dairy Industries Pastuerised UHT Evaporated Semi-skimmed Skimmed Resazurin test Lactic acid Rennet GM Yeast Curds Whey Upgrading of waste Upgrading of whey Milk which has been heat treated to kill the harmful bacteria. (Ultra high temperature) Milk which has been heat treated to kill all the bacteria in milk giving it a much longer shelf life. Milk which has had about half of the water removed and is used in a similar way to cream. Milk which has had around half of the fat removed. Milk which has had almost all the fat removed. A test carried out to demonstrate the presence of bacteria. The acid produced by bacteria when they break down milk sugars. The name given to the group of milk clotting enzymes used in the manufacture of cheese. Yeast which has been genetically modified to produce rennet. The clotted milk protein solids formed by the action of rennet. The liquid left after the milk protein clots. The production of a useful substance from a waste. Whey can be used as a medium for growing yeast. The yeast can change the sugars in the whey into alcohol. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 121

128 2. Yeast Industries Yeast Carbon dioxide Fermenters Cask conditioned beer Brewery conditioned beer Fermented milk drink Immobilisation Food flavouring Food colouring Methylene Blue Test A one celled fungus used in the baking and brewing industry. The gas given off by yeast when it respires. It makes the dough rise in bread making and makes beer fizzy. Large vessels used to grow (culture) micro-organisms such as yeast. Beer which has been stored in casks of wood or steel in which yeast is still present and provided with sugar to feed on e.g. Real ale. Beer which has had yeast and solid materials removed. It is stored in large tanks and has a longer shelf life. A way of preserving milk. Yeast is used to turn the milk sugars into alcohol e.g. kefir. Technique used to trap an enzyme and some yeast into a jelly bead. Yeast flavourings are added to soups, crisps and snacks e.g. chicken, bacon and beef crisps, Oxo cubes and Marmite. Red yeast can be fed to farmed salmon to give their flesh a pink colour similar to wild salmon. A test carried out to check for the presence of bacteria in water. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 122

129 3. Detergent Industries Detergent Biological washing powder Enzymes Allergic reactions Phosphates and sulphates Algae Algal bloom Something which cleans. A substance, usually a liquid or powder, used for washing things. Washing powder which contains enzymes. Chemicals produced by living cells which are added to some washing powders to digest stains. Conditions such skin rashes, eczema and asthma. Chemicals found in some detergents which can pollute rivers. Simple green plants ranging from plankton to seaweed. Name given to the huge increase in algae numbers when they reproduce because of the phosphates and sulphates. 4. Pharmaceutical Industries Antibiotics Alexander Fleming Penicillin Florey and Chain Genetic modification Resistance Anti-fungals Athletes foot Thrush Chemicals produced by micro-organisms which kill bacteria. British scientist who discovered antibiotics. One of the most common antibiotics. Two British scientists who managed to produce penicillin on an industrial scale. A technology which alters the genes found in living things. The ability of certain strains of bacteria to withstand an antibiotic. Chemicals used to treat fungal infections. A fungal infection of the feet. A fungal infection of the mouth or genitals. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 123

130 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 124

131 Intermediate 1 Biology Biotechnological Industries Words and Meanings Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 125

132 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 126

133 BIOTECHNOLOGICAL INDUSTRIES WORDSEARCH 1. Dairy Industries Complete the following words and meanings table using the words below. a) Pasteurised, UHT, evaporated, semi skimmed, skimmed, resazurin Word Meanings Milk which has had about half of the water removed. Milk which has had almost all of the fat removed. Milk which has been heat treated to 72 C for 15 seconds to kill harmful bacteria. Milk which has had around half of the fat removed. Milk which has been heat treated to between 135 C C for 2-5 seconds to kill all the bacteria. A test carried out on milk to check if it is fit for human consumption. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 127

134 Dairy (a) Y G N H U I O K N F E P W F B A N H W R G X U M A R M H D G F V R N H N E S O O D E B Q H Z T W L K T X M E T N A X F A S B B E D N L A T J Q Z L F T C U M Y R R W A T E S N O N R D P N O C K R K Z B T G I H Q A P Z V I R G J X J S N K L A U M E A C A M M E W W T V M W E X M C U C D P P R E S A Z U R I N V A N M D E M M I K S I M E S T Evaporated Pasteurised Resazurin Semiskimmed Skimmed UHT Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 128

135 Complete the following words and meanings table using the words below. b) Lactic acid, rennet, GM yeast, curds, whey, upgrading, yoghurt. Word Meanings Produced by bacteria when they break down milk sugars. The liquid left the milk proteins clot during cheese making. Yeast which has been genetically modified to produce rennet. The group of milk clotting enzymes used in the manufacture of cheese. The production of a useful substance from a waster. The clotted milk protein solids formed by the action of rennet. A creamy food produced from milk by using bacteria. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 129

136 Dairy (b) N H T R W Z G U E S V J U L S A C G J S Z B Q E P B A P F X D H W X V R G H M C U R D S R E E X R V E H T A D I I O T S A E Y M G I R B O T T I D V N L E T C M U C R E I T I N Y K A A L S H E N O E S E V I R C A N T G O F A S T E R Y I N A L I O T L E W I L E D O W N B Y Y O N W E N T A X O L O T L A T L A T L K G E R R X N W E W H E Y Curds GM Yeast Lactic Acid Rennet Upgrading Whey Yoghurt Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 130

137 2. Yeast Industries Complete the following words and meanings table using the words below. Yeast, carbon dioxide, fermenters, casks, brewery, fermented, immobilisation, flavouring, colouring. Word Meanings Beer can be conditioned in these. The yeast is still present. Technique used to trap and enzyme and some yeast in a jelly bead. One celled fungus used in the baking and brewing industry. The name given to beer which ahs had the yeast and solid materials removed before being stored in large tanks. Gas given off by yeast when it respires. It makes the dough rise in bread making. Describes milk produced by using yeast to turn milk sugar into alcohol. Large vessels used to grow microorganisms. Yeast is added to soups, crisps and snacks for this purpose. Red yeast can be fed to farmed salmon for this purpose. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 131

138 Yeast N C O M A F L A V O U R I N G G O N H S M E I S U R I H I T E L I I O I D R L I N G T O O T O K T M K I C M U E M E G Y Y U E I A O X S Q E T Y V E O D R T T S S O U H T N L O T S O I E O H O I T I N O T L E H W N A W I T D L E V S O E R I N G I K E O N E I A H F Y R S M R R I A R O L E B S T M A S O A H S E Y B Y I K O Y H T U T E K D V R R K S O B M O H K O I I E O A A A G S R A M E A E D O A L K C I H I N E Y I N T D E T N E M R E F I Y O Y E Brewery Carbon Dioxide Casks Colouring Fermented Fermenters Flavouring Immobilisation Yeast Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 132

139 3. Detergent Industries Complete the following words and meanings table using the words below. Detergent, biological, enzymes, allergic, phosphates, sulphates, algae, bloom. Word Meanings Added to some washing powders to digest stains. Simple green plants including plankton and seaweed. A liquid or powder used for washing things. Something which cleans. Chemical found in some detergents. Describes washing powders which contain enzymes. Chemical found in some detergents. Reactions such as skin rashes, eczema and asthma. Name given to the rapid huge increase in the number of algae. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 133

140 Detergent Industries D C R O C K E R C L Z A P Y E N Y G R E L L A M S K N S T M O M B S M C O E I B F L E X O S Y T I O T F F L S U R A N L P G C A L A V O A L G A E A O L H E R P O O C X E C T L H P E N S S E M Y Z N E O E L L S E D O O P H R T I R U A W M O P I F G L S B S S F O R I X S Y L B E N D E R R E T H G R E B D I O Z Y P H O S P H A T E S Q R D Algae Allergy Biological Bloom Detergent Enzymes Phosphates Sulphates Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 134

141 4. Pharmaceutical Industries Complete the following words and meanings table using the words below. Antibiotics, Fleming, penicillin, genetic modification, resistance, antifungals, athletes foot, thrush. Word Meanings One of the most common antibiotics. A technology which alters the genes found in living things. Chemicals produced by microorganisms which kill bacteria. British scientist who discovered antibiotics. Chemicals used to treat fungal infections. A fungal infection of the feet. The ability of some bacteria to withstand and antibiotic, A fungal infection of the mouth or genitals. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 135

142 Pharmaceutical Industries W O O A N T I B I O T I C S I E I K T N R A N D O S H I W S E T E H C T N O M N A A T E H N I L L I C I N E P I N E E I O Q N E A N T F D G D E N Q T I U A T L A W K U S O R E U I T A R E A I I E H N R F G A B A R G S M D L S A I G H E R D C R O F A O U B N S L A Y F E I E T O R R A U A H B A L N R F N K O H I D T M R A E U S A I N I T K L A A S A M G O Q I D G A N D F I N D I D A R T A O R E S I S T A N C E W O K B M K R A D N U G D I O M I E N Antibiotics Antifungals Athlete s Foot Fleming Genetic Modification Penicillin Resistance Thrush Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 136

143 Intermediate 1 Biology Growing Plants Student Summary Notes Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 137

144 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 138

145 Growing Plants from Seed Seed structure All seeds contain an embryo plant (young root and shoot) and a foodstore (usually made of starch) which the embryo uses to germinate (grow). The seed coat protects the embryo and foodstore from damage by bacteria, fungi and other organisms that live in the soil. Germination is the growth of the embryo into a new seedling (with a new shoot and root) Conditions for germination When seeds germinate (grow a root and shoot) they need a suitable temperature, water and oxygen. Photosynthesis Plants make food by a process called photosynthesis. This process occurs in sunlight and the food made can be used for growth. All green parts of a plant make food but most food is made in the leaves. The food made is stored as starch. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 139

146 Sowing seeds Seeds of intermediate size e.g. asters can be sown directly from the packet or by taking a pinch between thumb and forefinger and carefully scattering them over the surface of the compost. Fine seeds e.g. begonia should be mixed with silver sand. This allows the seeds to be spaced out more easily and reduces the competition with each other for water, root-space, minerals (nutrients) and light. Some fine seeds are enclosed in a small ball of clay. Such seeds are said to be pelleted. This makes small seeds easier to handle and therefore easier to space out. Large seeds e.g. sweet pea can be sown individually in seed trays or pots. Type of seed Method of sowing Advantage large seeds (broad bean) Individually spread out Avoids competition for space, minerals and food fine seeds e.g. cress, begonia with silver sand Small seeds difficult to handle, sand helps seeds to be sown more evenly chitted seeds (pre-germinated) e.g. sweet pea pelleted spread out evenly This makes fine seeds easier to handle. Pellet sometimes contains fertiliser to stimulate growth Seed coat cracked or treated to allow quicker germination Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 140

147 Instructions for sowing seeds: 1. Fill a seed tray with seed compost. Level the compost. 2. Firm gently. 3. Scatter the seeds thinly and evenly over the surface of the compost. Mix seeds with silver sand if they are very small or sow individually if they are large or pelleted seeds. 4. Cover seeds evenly with a thin layer of sieved compost and firm gently. 5. Use a watering can with a fine rose to water your seeds. 6. Use a pencil to write your name, date, type and variety of seed on a plant label. Insert the label between the tray and the compost. 7. Cover the tray or pot with a clear plastic sheet and newspaper and place in propagator. Dormancy Many seeds will not germinate after they have been dispersed or harvested from a plant even although they have been given ideal conditions for germination. These seeds are said to be dormant. For example, apple seeds need to go through a long cold period before germination can occur. This prevents germination during a warm winter spell when a return to a cold period would damage the seedling. The advantage of dormancy is that it delays natural germination until the spring when the temperature, water supply and light intensities are favourable for growth. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 141

148 Vegetative Propagation Bulbs Bulbs store food. They have buds which produce flowers or daughter bulbs. Since these are produced from one parent, this is a method of vegetative propagation. The foodstore allows bulbs to withstand winter conditions and to grow early in Spring before seeds germinate. Tubers are another example of a food storage organ e.g. potato Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 142

149 Attached offspring Some plants produce miniature plants called plantlets attached to the parent. The plantlets obtain food from the parent plant until they are established. 1. Production of plantlets from runners In the case of Spider Plant (Chlorophytum) and Mother of Thousands (Saxifraga sarmentosa) the plantlet forms at the end of a runner (a horizontal stem). The plantlet can be pegged down into a small pot of compost using wire. When roots are established, the runner is cut close to the new plant and the wire removed. Strawberry plants can also be propagated by this method. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 143

150 2. Production of leaf plantlets Mexican Hat Plant (Bryophyllum) produces large numbers of small plantlets along the leaf edges. These can be detached from the leaf and grown in pots of compost. Piggy-Back Plant (Tolmiea) also produces plantlets in the middle of their leaves. 3. Production of plantlets from offsets Some plants for example Mother in Law s Tongue (Sansivaria) produce offsets. Offsets are small plantlets produced as side shoots at the base of the parent plant. These can be detached from the parent plant and grown separately. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 144

151 Methods of Artificial Propagation Taking stem cuttings A new plant can be grown from part of the original plant. Methods of reproducing plants without seeds are called vegetative propagation. Artificial propagation means that part of a plant for example a stem or leaf is cut off from its parent and treated so that it grows into a new plant. This method is quicker than waiting for the parent plant to produce seeds and all new plants will be exactly like the parent plant e.g. same colour of flower and leaves. Nodes are points on a plant s stem where new growth occurs. When a plant stem is wounded for example by cutting below a node, the stem produces roots. Rooting powder contains a hormone which speeds up root growth. Cuttings are placed in propagators. Propagators have electrical cables that supply heat to the cuttings. This also encourages root growth. If too much heat is supplied, the plant will wilt as it loses too much water. This can be prevented by reducing the leaf surface area by removing some of the lower leaves or by increasing the humidity by placing the cutting in a mist propagator or covering it with a polythene bag. Suitable plants for taking stem cuttings are: Coleus, Inch Plants (Tradescantia and Zebrina), Fuschia, Aluminium Plant (Pilea), Geranium (Pelargonium) and Grape Ivy (Rhoicissus). Suitable plants for taking leaf cuttings are: African violet (Saintpaulia), Wax Begonia (Begonia semperflorens), Pepper plant (Peperomia), Cape Primrose (Streptocarpus), Mother in Law s Tongue (Sansivaria), and Begonia rex. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 145

152 Instructions for taking stem cuttings 1. Make sure that the cutting has a growing point. The cutting should be about 10cm long 2. Cut below a node using a sharp knife and remove the lower leaves from your cutting. 3. Dip base of your cutting into rooting powder. 4. Place your cutting into rooting compost. 5. Water the cutting to dampen the compost. 6. Place your cutting in a propagator or cover the pot with a polythene bag held in place with an elastic band. Layering Layering is a method of propagating plants which have long flexible stems e.g. ivys, honeysuckle and members of the Tradescantia group (e.g. Inch plant or Wandering Jew). When the stem is still attached to the parent plant, it is pegged down into a pot of rooting compost or into the soil if it is an outdoor plant. Often the stem is wounded by cutting below a node (point where leaves are attached) and dusting with rooting powder to encourage root growth. This is particularly important if the stem is woody. When roots develop, the stem is cut to separate the new plant from the parent plant. The advantage of layering is that the new plant is supplied with water, sugar and minerals from the parent plant. This means that many plants, difficult to raise from cuttings, can be propagated by this method. The plants produced are also larger. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 146

153 Plant Production Composts Soil (loam) cannot support healthy root growth in the restricted volume of a plant pot, therefore composts are used. An ideal compost should have an open structure which has good aeration (plenty of air) good drainage and is able to hold enough water to avoid frequent watering. It should be reasonably sterile (free from bacteria s and fungi) and contain enough minerals for healthy plant growth. Properties of materials used in composts for growing plants in containers: Materials Sharp sand or perlite Peat Fertiliser Loam (soil) Property Improves aeration and drainage Improves water holding capacity Increases level of plant nutrients Provides low levels of fertiliser. Requires to be sterilised to kill pests and diseases. There are two basic kinds of composts: loam based and loamless. Composition of loam based and loamless composts: Loam based compost Loamless compost Major component Loam (soil) Peat Other components added to improve root growth Peat Sharp sand or perlite Fertilisers Sharp sand or perlite Fertilisers Loamless composts do nor require to be sterilised but they do not hold plant roots as well as loam based composts. They can become waterlogged and are difficult to re-wet if allowed to dry out. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 147

154 Peat alternatives Peat is a natural substance formed from decaying plant material. Once it has been harvested from its natural environment it cannot be replaced. Substances such as coir and cocoa shell and can be used instead of peat for certain gardening procedures for example mulching. They tend however to be very acidic. There are several types of loam based and loamless composts for example seed and potting composts. Potting compost contains far more minerals, as it has to supply the needs for more mature plants. Fertilisers Plants need minerals for healthy growth. The three main minerals that they need in fairly large amounts are: MINERAL IMPORTANCE 1. N = Nitrogen for leaf growth 2. P = Phosphorus (sometimes called phosphate) for root growth 3. K = Potassium (sometimes called potash) for growth of fruit and flowers Plants also require some minerals in small amounts to keep them healthy e.g. iron. Minerals that are needed in small amounts are called trace elements. If there are not enough minerals present in the soil or compost, they can be supplied by adding fertilisers. The amount of N, P and K present in fertilisers vary to meet the needs of different plants. Proportions of N, P and K are shown on the container in the order of N, P and K e.g Fertilisers can be supplied as liquids or as granules (small pellets). Granules are easy to apply and break down slowly to release minerals. They are not blown away by the wind. Liquid fertilisers are quick acting but nitrogen is leached (drains away quickly from the plant roots). Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 148

155 Watering Watering Basic Rules 1. Do not overwater feel the compost first to see if it is damp. Note: peat-based composts should never be allowed to dry out completely, as they are very difficult to re-wet. 2. Early morning watering is best in summer. Less water is required in winter when the temperature is low. 3. Do not water if the plants are in direct sunlight. The leaves may get droplets of water on them. These will magnify the sun s rays and burn the leaves. 4. Some plants e.g. African violet, trays of seeds and seedlings should be watered from below by placing the container in a tray of water. Signs of underwatering: Leaf edges become brown and dry. Leaves may fall off. Signs of overwatering: Compost becomes green, slimy and smelly. Leaves become soft, yellow and decayed especially at the bases. Note: Leaves may droop if the plant is overwatered as well as if they are underwatered. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 149

156 Watering systems Automatic Watering Systems The main purpose of an automatic watering system is to allow the plants to be watered without anyone having to do the job e.g. by using a watering can. This type of system saves time and is ideal when people are away on holiday. There are many different types of automatic watering systems: 1. Trickle irrigation Water reaches each pot through a plastic pipeline which has nozzles in it to release water. The pipeline may be attached to a water tank and water is allowed to trickle continuously. It may be attached to a computer which only allows water to flow for particular periods of time. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 150

157 2. Capillary bench Capillary matting is a material that sucks-up water and stays moist. The greenhouse staging is covered with polythene and the capillary matting is placed on top of it. A piece of the matting is placed into a container of water. Water is drawn into the matting which stays moist. Plant pots are placed on top. 3. Water retentive gels Water retentive gels are special chemicals which can absorb many hundreds of times their own weight of water. They are mixed with compost. They last for many seasons, mean less watering and are ideal for hanging baskets and plants that are grown in large containers. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 151

158 Protected Cultivation This includes the use of glass, plastic and floating fleece. 1. Greenhouses and Polythene Tunnels Greenhouses and polythene tunnels protect plants from cold, wind, rain and frost. Heating There are many ways to heat a greenhouse. Electric heating is the most efficient. To control the temperature in a greenhouse, the electricity supply is connected to a thermostat. When the temperature falls below a fixed temperature, the thermostat switches the heating on and switches it off when a fixed upper temperature is reached. The advantage of heating is that it prevents frost damage and encourages plant growth. The disadvantage is that the plant may lose too much water and wilt. Ventilation Ventilation means providing fresh air. Stale moist air provides ideal conditions for the spread of disease for example grey mould (mildew). Ventilation is also important in controlling temperature and humidity (how much moisture is in the air). To provide optimum conditions for plant growth, automatic ventilation is essential. Automatic systems work without anyone being there to operate them. There are two main automatic systems for controlling ventilation: Cylinders These are fitted to the windows. Inside the cylinder, there is a heat sensitive wax. When the temperature rises, the wax expands pushing the cylinder and therefore opening the window. When the temperature falls, the wax contracts and the window closes. Fans Greenhouse fans are slow moving so that they do not cause draughts. They are thermostatically controlled. When the temperature rises, a piece of equipment called a thermostat set at a particular temperature, switches on the electricity to start the fan. This lowers the temperature and circulates the air in the greenhouse also lowering the humidity. The thermostat switches off the fan when the temperature drops to a certain value. 2. Floating Fleece and Cloches Floating fleece and cloches (tent-like structures made from glass, plastic or polythene) also protect plants from the weather. They raise the temperature of the soil and so make it possible to sow seeds earlier in the season. This increases the percentage germination and allows earlier harvesting of the crop. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 152

159 Methods of maintaining plants 1. Potting on A plant needs potting on (put into a larger pot) if the roots completely fill the pot and grow out of the holes in the bottom. The plant is said to be root-bound. Potting on provides the plant with more space for the roots to grow. It also provides more compost and therefore more minerals. Potting plants into larger containers should be a gradual process, increasing the pot size by 25-50mm each time. The process of potting on is sometimes called re-potting. Instructions 1. Carefully support the stem of the plant with your hand. Knock the rim of the pot on the edge of a table to remove the plant. 2. Select a plant pot that is 25-50mm larger than the one that the plant was taken out of and place some potting compost in the bottom. 3. Place the plant in the centre of the pot and check that there is the correct amount of compost. The plant should sit level with the watering space. 4. Keep the plant in the centre of the pot and place potting compost around the edges and firm it down. Repeat this process until the compost is level with the watering space. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 153

160 2. Pricking out Before seedlings become too large and start to compete for light and root space, they must be transplanted. This process is called pricking out. The seedlings are pricked out into seed trays or individually into pots. 1. Fill the seed tray with potting compost and use a dibber to make holes. 2. Gently lift out seedlings with as much compost as possible around their roots. 3. Hold seedling by leaves and drop into hole. 4. Firm compost around seedling roots and water gently. Dead Heading Flowering plants can be encouraged to continue to flower by removing flower heads that have died. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 154

161 TYPES OF PLANTS All types of plants require certain ideal conditions if they are to grow well. Some need to be kept cool and others need average warmth. Bright light is necessary for certain plants, shade is necessary for others. The amount of water and air humidity that certain plants require also varies. The types of plants that you will be growing during this topic can be divided into four main groups. 1. Flowering Pot Plants These plants are grown for their display of flowers. They can be encouraged to continue to flower by removing flower heads that have died a process called dead-heading. Once they have finished flowering, they are thrown away e.g. Fuchsia. 2. Flowering House Plants These plants continue to grow after flowering and may live for a long time e.g. African violet. 3. Foliage Plants These plants are grown for the shape and colour of their leaves, although they may also produce flowers e.g. Rubber plant. Note: many house plants can be grouped as both flowering house plants and as foliage plants e.g. Geranium. 4. Succulent Plants These are plants with fleshy leaves or stems which can store water. Cacti belong to a group of succulents. There are two main types of cacti: Desert Cacti - their stems are swollen and their leaves are often reduced to spines or hairs e.g. Barrel cactus. Forest Cacti Grow attached to trees in jungles e.g. Christmas cactus. Cacti require sunny, dry conditions for optimum growth. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 155

162 Pests and disease Pests and disease cause damage to plants. They may make the plant look unsightly or lower the yield if it is a crop plant. 1. Aphids One of the most common plant pests is the aphid or greenfly. This insect is found mainly at the shoot tips and flower buds of pot plants where it sucks the sap from the plant. Aphids can be controlled in the following ways: (a) Spraying with insecticides. (b) Spraying with soapy water. (c) Biological control i.e. introduce ladybirds which feed on aphids. (d) Crushing aphids between finger and thumb. 2. Fungal diseases Diseases are mainly caused by fungi (moulds). A common fungal disease is called botrytis (grey mould). It can be recognised as it can cover soft-leaved plants e.g. Begonia rex and African violet with a grey fluffy growth. It can be controlled by spraying with a fungicide and by burning infected parts of the plant. Moulds like a high level of humidity, therefore it is a good idea to cut down on watering and misting and to open the windows to improve ventilation. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 156

163 Intermediate 1 Biology Growing Plants Cloze Technique Consolidation Exercise Use the wordbanks provided to complete the summary notes Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 157

164 Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 158

165 Growing Plants from Seed Seed structure All seeds contain an (young root and shoot) and a foodstore (usually made of ) which the embryo uses to (grow). The protects the embryo and foodstore from damage by, fungi and other organisms that live in the soil. is the growth of the embryo into a new seedling (with a new shoot and root) Conditions for germination When seeds germinate (grow a root and shoot) they need a suitable, water and. Photosynthesis Plants make food by a process called. This process occurs in and the food made can be used for growth. All parts of a plant make food but most food is made in the leaves. The food made is stored as starch. WORDBANK Green, photosynthesis, sunlight, germination, oxygen, temperature, bacteria, embryo plant, germinate, starch, seed coat. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 159

166 Sowing seeds Seeds of intermediate size e.g. asters can be sown directly from the packet or by taking a pinch between thumb and forefinger and carefully scattering them over the surface of the compost. Fine seeds e.g. begonia should be mixed with. This allows the seeds to be spaced out more easily and reduces the competition with each other for water, root-space, minerals (nutrients) and. Some fine seeds are enclosed in a small ball of. Such seeds are said to be. This makes small seeds easier to handle and therefore easier to space out. Large seeds e.g. sweet pea can be sown individually in seed trays or pots. Type of seed Method of sowing Advantage seeds (broad bean) Individually spread out Avoids competition for space, minerals and food seeds e.g. cress, begonia with silver sand pelleted Small seeds difficult to handle, sand helps seeds to be sown more evenly This makes fine seeds easier to handle. Pellet sometimes contains fertiliser to stimulate growth seeds (pre-germinated) e.g. sweet pea spread out evenly Seed coat cracked or treated to allow quicker germination WORDBANK Chitted, fine, large, clay, pelleted, silver sand, light. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 160

167 Instructions for sowing seeds: 1. Fill a seed tray with compost. Level the compost. 2. gently. 3. Scatter the seeds and evenly over the surface of the compost. Mix seeds with silver sand if they are very small or sow individually if they are large or pelleted seeds. 4. Cover seeds evenly with a thin layer of compost and firm gently. 5. Use a watering can with a rose to water your seeds. 6. Use a pencil to write your name, date, type and of seed on a plant label. Insert the label between the tray and the compost. 7. Cover the tray or pot with a clear plastic sheet and newspaper and place in.. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 161

168 Dormancy Many seeds will not germinate after they have been dispersed or harvested from a plant even although they have been given ideal conditions for germination. These seeds are said to be. For example, apple seeds need to go through a long period before germination can occur. This prevents germination during a warm winter spell when a return to a cold period would damage the. The advantage of dormancy is that it natural germination until the when the temperature, water supply and light intensities are favourable for growth. WORDBANK Firm, seed, propagator, variety, sieved, fine, thinly, seedling, cold, delays, spring, dormant Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 162

169 Vegetative propagation Bulbs Bulbs store. They have which produce flowers or daughter bulbs. Since these are produced from one parent, this is a method of vegetative propagation. The foodstore allows bulbs to withstand conditions and to grow early in before seeds germinate. are another example of a food storage organ e.g. potato Buds, winter, tubers, spring, food WORDBANK Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 163

170 Attached offspring Some plants produce miniature plants called attached to the parent. The plantlets obtain from the parent plant until they are established. 1. Production of plantlets from runners Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 164

171 In the case of Spider Plant (Chlorophytum) and Mother of Thousands (Saxifraga sarmentosa) the plantlet forms at the end of a (a horizontal stem). The plantlet can be into a small pot of compost using wire. When are established, the runner is cut close to the new plant and the wire removed. Strawberry plants can also be propagated by this method. Pegged down, roots, runner, plantlets, food WORDBANK Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 165

172 2. Production of leaf plantlets (Bryophyllum) produces large numbers of small plantlets along the leaf. These can be detached from the leaf and grown in pots of compost. Piggy-Back Plant (Tolmiea) also produces plantlets in the of their leaves. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 166

173 3. Production of plantlets from offsets Some plants for example Mother in Law s Tongue (Sansivaria) produce. Offsets are small plantlets produced as at the base of the parent plant. These can be detached from the parent plant and grown separately. WORDBANK Side shoots, middle, Mexican Hat Plant, offsets, edges Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 167

174 Methods of Artificial Propagation Taking stem cuttings A new plant can be grown from part of the original plant. Methods of reproducing plants without are called vegetative propagation. propagation means that part of a plant for example a or leaf is cut off from its parent and so that it grows into a new plant. This method is than waiting for the parent plant to produce seeds and all new plants will be the parent plant e.g. same colour of flower and leaves. are points on a plant s stem where new growth occurs. When a plant stem is wounded for example by cutting below a node, the stem produces roots. powder contains a hormone which speeds up root growth. Cuttings are placed in propagators. Propagators have electrical cables that supply heat to the cuttings. This also encourages. If too much heat is supplied, the plant will as it loses too much water. This can be prevented by reducing the leaf. by removing some of the lower leaves or by increasing the by placing the cutting in a mist propagator or covering it with a polythene bag. Suitable plants for taking stem cuttings are: Coleus, Inch Plants (Tradescantia and Zebrina), Fuschia, Aluminium Plant (Pilea), Geranium (Pelargonium) and Grape Ivy (Rhoicissus). Suitable plants for taking leaf cuttings are: African violet (Saintpaulia), Wax Begonia (Begonia semperflorens), Pepper plant (Peperomia), Cape Primrose (Streptocarpus), Mother in Law s Tongue (Sansivaria), and Begonia rex. WORDBANK Artificial, treated, seeds, exactly like, stem, nodes, quicker, wilt, root growth, rooting, humidity, surface area Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 168

175 Instructions for taking stem cuttings 1. Make sure that the cutting has a. The cutting should be about 10cm long 2. Cut below a using a sharp knife and remove the from your cutting. 3. Dip base of your cutting into.. 4. Place your cutting into.. 5. Water the cutting to dampen the compost. 6. Place your cutting in a or cover the pot with a bag held in place with an elastic band. WORDBANK Lower leaves, rooting powder, growing point, rooting compost, node, polythene, propagator Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 169

176 Layering Layering is a method of propagating plants which have. stems e.g. ivys, honeysuckle and members of the Tradescantia group (e.g. Inch plant or Wandering Jew). When the stem is still attached to the parent plant, it is. into a pot of rooting compost or into the soil if it is an outdoor plant. Often the stem is wounded by cutting below a (point where leaves are attached) and dusting with rooting powder to encourage.. This is particularly important if the stem is woody. When roots develop, the stem is cut to separate the new plant from the parent plant. The advantage of layering is that the new plant is supplied with, sugar and from the parent plant. This means that many plants, difficult to raise from cuttings, can be propagated by this method. The plants produced are also. WORDBANK Node, pegged down, root growth, water, long flexible, larger, minerals Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 170

177 Plant production Composts Soil (loam) cannot support healthy root growth in the restricted volume of a plant pot, therefore composts are used. An ideal compost should have an structure which has good (plenty of air) good and is able to hold enough water to avoid frequent watering. It should be reasonably (free from bacteria s and fungi) and contain enough for healthy plant growth. Properties of materials used in composts for growing plants in containers: Materials Property or perlite Improves aeration and drainage Improves water holding capacity Increases level of plant nutrients (soil) Provides low levels of fertiliser. Requires to be sterilised to kill pests and diseases. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 171

178 There are two basic kinds of composts: loam based and loamless. Composition of loam based and loamless composts: Loam based compost Loamless compost Major component Loam (soil) Peat Other components added to improve root growth Peat Sharp sand or perlite Fertilisers Sharp sand or perlite Fertilisers composts do nor require to be sterilised but they do not hold plant roots as well as composts. They can become waterlogged and are difficult to re-wet if allowed to dry out. WORDBANK Minerals, open, sterile, aeration, drainage, loam, peat, sharp sand, fertiliser, loam based, loamless Peat alternatives Peat is a natural substance formed from material. Once it has been harvested from its natural environment it cannot be replaced. Substances such as and cocoa shell and can be used instead of peat for certain gardening procedures for example. They tend however to be very acidic. There are several types of loam based and loamless composts for example seed and potting composts. Potting compost contains far more minerals as it has to supply the needs for more mature plants. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 172

179 Fertilisers Plants need minerals for healthy growth. The three main minerals that they need in fairly large amounts are: Mineral Importance 1. N = for growth 2. P = (sometimes called for growth phosphate) 3. K = (sometimes called potash) for growth of and Plants also require some minerals in small amounts to keep them healthy e.g. iron. Minerals that are needed in small amounts are called. If there are not enough minerals present in the soil or compost, they can be supplied by adding. The amount of N, P and K present in fertilisers vary to meet the needs of different plants. of N, P and K are shown on the container in the order of N, P and K e.g Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 173

180 Fertilisers can be supplied as or as granules (small pellets). are easy to apply and break down slowly to release minerals. They are not blown away by the wind. Liquid fertilisers are quick acting but nitrogen is (drains away quickly from the plant roots). WORDBANK Mulching, coir, decaying plant, phosphorus, leaf, potassium, root, nitrogen, fruit, flowers, proportions, trace elements, liquids, fertilisers, leached, granules Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 174

181 Watering Watering Basic Rules 1. Do not feel the compost first to see if it is damp. Note:. composts should never be allowed to dry out completely as they are very difficult to re-wet. 2. Early morning watering is best in. Less water is required in when the temperature is low. 3. Do not water if the plants are in direct. The leaves may get droplets of water on them. These will magnify the sun s rays and burn the leaves. 4. Some plants e.g. African violet, trays of seeds and seedlings should be watered from by placing the container in a tray of water. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 175

182 Signs of : Leaf edges become brown and dry. Leaves may fall off. Signs of : Compost becomes green, slimy and smelly. Leaves become soft, yellow and decayed especially at the bases. Note: Leaves may if the plant is overwatered as well as if they are underwatered. WORDBANK Summer, overwater, winter, peat based, overwatering, below, droop, underwatering, sunlight Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 176

183 Watering systems Automatic Watering Systems The main purpose of an automatic watering system is to allow the plants to be watered without anyone having to do the job e.g. by using a watering can. This type of system saves time and is ideal when people are away on holiday. There are many different types of automatic watering systems: 1. irrigation Water reaches each pot through a plastic pipeline which has in it to release water. The pipeline may be attached to a water tank and water is allowed to trickle continuously. It may be attached to a which only allows water to flow for particular periods of time. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 177

184 2. Capillary bench. is a material that sucks-up water and stays moist. The greenhouse staging is covered with polythene and the capillary matting is placed on top of it. A piece of the matting is placed into a container of water. Water is drawn into the matting which stays moist.. are placed on top. 3. Water retentive gels Water retentive gels are which can many hundreds of times their own weight of water. They are mixed with. They last for many seasons, mean and are ideal for and plants that are grown in large containers. WORDBANK Nozzles, computer, trickle, plant pots, absorb, capillary matting, special chemicals, hanging baskets, Compost, less watering Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 178

185 Protected Cultivation This includes the use of, plastic and floating. 1. Greenhouses and Polythene Tunnels Greenhouses and polythene tunnels protect plants from cold, wind, rain and frost. Heating There are many ways to heat a greenhouse. heating is the most efficient. To control the temperature in a greenhouse, the electricity supply is connected to a. When the temperature falls a fixed temperature, the thermostat switches the heating on and switches it off when a fixed upper temperature is reached. The advantage of heating is that it prevents and encourages plant growth. The disadvantage is that the plant may lose too much water and wilt. Ventilation Ventilation means providing air. Stale air provides ideal conditions for the spread of disease for example. (mildew). Ventilation is also important in controlling temperature and (how much moisture is in the air). To provide optimum conditions for plant growth, automatic ventilation is essential. Automatic systems work without anyone being there to operate them. There are two main automatic systems for controlling ventilation: Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 179

186 Cylinders These are fitted to the windows. Inside the cylinder, there is a heat sensitive wax. When the temperature rises, the wax pushing the cylinder and therefore opening the window. When the temperature falls, the wax and the window closes. Fans Greenhouse fans are moving so that they do not cause. They are thermostatically controlled. When the temperature rises, a piece of equipment called a thermostat set at a particular temperature, switches on the electricity to start the fan. This lowers the temperature and circulates the air in the greenhouse also lowering the humidity. The thermostat switches off the fan when the temperature drops to a certain value. 2. Floating Fleece and Cloches Floating fleece and cloches (tent-like structures made from glass, plastic or polythene) also protect plants from the weather. They the temperature of the soil and so make it possible to sow seeds in the season. This increases the percentage and allows earlier of the crop. WORDBANK Frost damage, thermostat, electric, below, humidity, fresh, grey mould, moist, slow, expands, glass, draughts, contracts, fleece, germination, raise, harvesting, earlier Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 180

187 Methods of maintaining plants 1. Potting on A plant needs. (put into a larger pot) if the roots completely fill the pot and grow out of the holes in the bottom. The plant is said to be.. Potting on provides the plant with more for the roots to grow. It also provides more compost and therefore more. Potting plants into larger containers should be a gradual process, increasing the pot size by 25-50mm each time. The process of potting on is sometimes called re-potting. Instructions 1. Carefully support the of the plant with your hand. Knock the rim of the pot on the edge of a table to remove the plant. 2. Select a plant pot that is 25-50mm larger than the one that the plant was taken out of and place some in the bottom. 3. Place the plant in the centre of the pot and check that there is the correct amount of compost. The plant should sit level with the. 4. Keep the plant in the of the pot and place potting compost around the edges and it down. Repeat this process until the compost is level with the watering space. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 181

188 WORDBANK Space, root bound, stem, potting on, minerals, centre, watering space, potting compost, firm Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 182

189 2. Pricking out Before seedlings become too large and start to compete for light and., they must be. This process is called. The seedlings are pricked out into seed trays or individually into pots. 1. Fill the seed tray with compost and use a to make holes. 2. Gently lift out seedlings with as much compost as possible around their roots. Biology: Summary Sheets and Consolidation Exercises (Int 1) 183