Arab Republic of Egypt

Transcription

1 Arab Republic of Egypt COUNTRY PROFILE 1 I. History The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's greatest civilizations. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investment in communications and physical infrastructure. II. Geography Location: Northern Africa, with total area of 1,001,450 sq km (land: 995,450 sq km, water: 6,000 sq km). Climate: desert; hot, dry summers with moderate winters. Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc. Land use: arable land: 2.92%, permanent crops: 0.5%, other: 96.58% (2005). Irrigated land: 33,000 sq km (1998 est.). Environment: agricultural land being lost to urbanization and windblown sands; increasing soil salinity below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution threatening coral reef, beaches, and marine habitats; other water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; very limited natural fresh water resources away from the 1 The present document has been prepared by the Strategic Research Unit (SRU) of the National Water Research Center of Egypt. The EC declines all responsibility for any use that may be made thereof. 1

2 Nile, which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining the Nile and natural resources. III. People Population: 78,887,007 (July 2006 est.) Population growth rate: 1.75% (2006 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female, under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female, years: 1.02 male(s)/female, 65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female, total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2006 est.). Life expectancy at birth: total population: years, male: years, female: years (2006 est.). Religions: Muslim (mostly Sunni) 90%, Coptic 9%, other Christian 1%. Languages: Arabic (official), English and French widely understood by educated classes. Literacy: 57.7% of population above the age of 15 and over can read and write (male: 68.3%, female: 46.9%) (2003 est.). IV. Economy Economy - overview: Egypt is bisected by the highly fertile Nile Valley, where most of the economic activities take place. In the last 30 years, the government has reformed the highly centralized economy. Starting from 2005, the government reduced personal and corporate tax rates, energy subsidies, and privatized several enterprises. The stock market boomed, and GDP grew by nearly 5% reaching 8% in Foreign direct investments remain low. Egypt's export sectors - particularly natural gas - have bright prospects. Agriculture: cotton, rice, corn, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats. Industries: textiles, food processing, tourism, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, hydrocarbons, construction, cement, metals, light manufactures. Production growth rate 3.2% (2005 est.). Power generation: billion kwh (2003). V. Government: Capital: Cairo and 26 Administrative divisions called governorates: Ad-Daqahliyah, Al Bahr al Ahmar, Al Buhayrah, Al Fayyum, Al Gharbiyah, Al Iskandariyah, Al Isma'iliyah, Al Jizah, Al Minufiyah, Al Minya, Al Qahirah, Al Qalyubiyah, Al Wadi al Jadid, As Suways, Ash Sharqiyah, Aswan, Asyut, Bani Suwayf, Bur Sa'id, Dumyat, Janub Sina', Kafr ash Shaykh, Matruh, Qina, Shamal Sina', Suhaj. VI. Water Resources The overall average annual rainfall in Egypt is about 18 mm. Precipitation which occurs in winter and late autumn accounts for 1.3 BCM/yr of internal renewable water resources recharging shallow aquifers, and to a less extent supplying surface water resources. 2

3 The Nile River supplies about 97% of the annual renewable water resources in Egypt. Out of the Nile s average natural flow of 84.0 cubic km/yr reaching Aswan, a share of 55.5 BCM/yr is allocated to Egypt according to the Nile Water Agreement (1959). This amount is constant and incremental possibilities are not foreseen for the short term. This accounts for an average per capita share of about 800 cubic m/cap/yr as of year 2004, while projections forecast a share of about 600 cubic m/cap/yr by the year Non-renewable water resources comprise fossil groundwater in deep aquifers. Fossil water exploitation is estimated at a rate of 1.0 BCM/yr, mainly concentrated at the oases of the Western Desert. Groundwater utilization has been steadily increasing in Egypt for the last twenty years. There are four major groundwater systems in Egypt: The Nile aquifer is a renewable shallow aquifer that underlies the Nile Delta. It is characterized by its high productivity rate of ( m 3 /hr) with relatively shallow wells at relatively low pumping cost. About 6.1 BCM/yr are annually extracted from the aquifer. Being a shallow aquifer it is extremely vulnerable to pollution by surface induced sources. Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater is widely practiced by farmers, especially during periods of peak irrigation demands. Since the aquifer is directly connected to the Nile River system, thus, it is directly affected by programs for reducing conveyance losses in waterways. The Nubian sandstone aquifer is shared by four countries namely; Egypt, Sudan, Chad, and Libya. The whole aquifer contains about 150,000 BCM of fossil water at depths reaching 2000 m. Pumping costs and economies of scale control the development of groundwater from the Nubian Aquifer. The shallow aquifers at the middle and south of the desert are connected to the deep aquifer, thus providing a good potential for groundwater development. The Moghra aquifer is recharged by rainfall and inflow from the Nile aquifer. Due to the sharp increase in abstractions for groundwater-based reclamation projects in the Egyptian Western Desert and industrial and municipal supply, the water quality and sustainability of this resource is at risk. The Coastal aquifers on the western northern coast of Egypt are recharged by rainfall on the western coast. Abstractions are limited due to the presence of saline water underneath the fresh water layers. Non-conventional resources include agricultural drainage water reuse, sea water and, brackish water desalination, municipal wastewater reuse, and rain harvesting. The municipal wastewater reuse capacity is currently of the order of 0.7 BCM/yr, while the agricultural drainage reuse is projected to be around 7.5 BCM/yr in the Nile Valley and Delta. Reused water is a recycled bi-product of other water utilization sectors. It should be viewed as a demand management intervention and should not be accounted for at the national balance of natural resources. 3

4 VII. Water Demand Various demands for freshwater are exerting excessive pressure on the available water supply. The agricultural sector (including fisheries) is the highest freshwater consumer, utilizing about 86% of the available supplies (excluding recycling), while the domestic and industrial sectors consume 6% and 8% of the total natural supplies. The navigation and energy (i.e. hydropower) sub-sectors are instream users; meaning that they utilize the Nile/irrigation distribution system, but they are not net consumers of the water resources. Drainage water spilled to the Mediterranean Sea and the desert fringes of the Nile system contribute to the water needed to maintain the ecosystem/habitats of the northern Delta/Lakes. Evaporation losses from the 31,000 km-long water conveyance network are estimated at about 2.4 BCM/yr Rest Nile Valley Nile Delta Population Area The first and most important challenge in Egypt is satisfying the future water demand corresponding to the expected population growth. The population of Egypt is estimated at 78 million in 2006 and is expected to reach somewhere between millions in the year More than ninety five percent of the present population of Egypt is concentrated in only about 5.5% of the total area namely in the Nile Valley and the Delta. Water demand is rapidly increasing due to growing demand for water by agriculture, horizontal expansion in the desert areas, industrial growth, new communities, etc. This triggers the need for more efficient use of present resources and, if possible, to develop additional water resources. Drinking water requirements for major urban towns and rural villages have been estimated at 4.6 BCM in 99/2000 where approximately 97% of urban population and 70% or rural population of Egypt relies on piped water supply. The major cities in Egypt enjoy full potable water coverage (100%). Sanitation services, however, lag behind water supply, where approximately 52% of urban population is covered by sanitation systems while about 11% of rural population in villages is connected to the sewerage system. The total municipal demand (drinking water) is calculated to increase by a factor of 1.4 between 2000 and The total industrial water utilization is expected to increase by a factor of 2.0 throughout the former period. Fisheries rely greatly on water resources and are directly affected by water allocation policies. The total fish production in Egypt reaches 725 thousand tons in the year 2002 where 18% of it came from marine fisheries. It is estimated that a minimum of 8.5 BCM/yr 4

5 of fresh and drainage water is required to sustain the present ecological conditions including fish production from the Delta lakes. VIII. Water Quality In general, surface water quality exhibits deterioration as we move downstream with the worst pollution occurring at the northern lakes. The domestic water demands result into about 3.8 BCM/yr of wastewater being discharged into the Nile, out of which 35% are treated. Pathogenic pollution of surface water has been recorded to increase during the 1980s and to decrease gradually throughout the 1990s and in all cases it exists in restricted localized areas. The government comprehensive plans to extend sanitation coverage and wastewater treatment to rural areas are expected to eliminate significant pathogenic pollution by year Industrial effluents contribute to about 1.3 BCM/yr of untreated waste water being discharged to surface waters. Food industries contribute to 45% of total effluent discharge and to 67% of the total BOD load introduced. Industrial effluents contribute to the increased levels of trace elements sediments. Drainage return flow to the Nile results into an increase in salinity of the water from 130 mg/l at Aswan (far upstream) to 250 mg/l near the delta barrage. Nitrogen fertilizers whose consumption has increased present another source of pollution. Water hyacinth flourishing at the downstream of water ways due to increased nutrients leads to clogging of canals and is combated with mechanical and biological technologies. Despite the flourishing fish production in Egypt, only 17 species remain out of 47 which used to be available. A national water quality monitoring program is launched comprising more than 300 observation sites. IX. Institutional Framework Several ministries are involved in managing the water sector. The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) plays a key-role in the development and management of the water system in the country. The ministry is in charge of the development, distribution and management of water resources, as well as the development and O&M of the associated water work. The Ministry is also responsible for the collection and disposal of agricultural drainage water, for monitoring and assessing the water quality of the various water sources, and protecting the coastal lakes and the shoreline. The Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR) is involved in improving agricultural activities and land reclamation, including water management at the on-farm level. The Ministry of Housing, Utilities and New Communities (MHUNC), provides water supply and sanitation services to the municipal and industrial sub-sectors. Some other ministries participate by different degrees in auxiliary management and operation of part of the irrigation and 5

6 drainage systems such as the Ministry of Health and Population (MoHP), the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs, and the Ministry of Local Development (MoLD). X. Water Management Principles Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment. Since water sustains life, effective management of water resources demands a holistic approach, linking social and economic development with protection of natural ecosystems. Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good. Within this principle, it is vital to recognize first the basic right of all human beings to have access to clean water and sanitation at an affordable price. Failure to recognize the economic value of water leads to wasteful and damages to the resource. Managing water as an economic good is important for achieving efficient and equitable use, and for encouraging conservation and protection of water resources. Effective management links land and water uses across a whole catchments area whether the source comes from surface or groundwater. Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners and policymakers at all levels. The participatory approach involves raising awareness of the importance of water among policy-makers and the general public. It means that decisions are taken at the lowest appropriate level, with full public consultation and involvement of users taking into consideration the gender aspect, in the planning and implementation of water projects. Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water. This pivotal role of women as providers and users of water and guardians of the living environment has seldom been reflected in institutional arrangements for the development and management of water resources. Acceptance and implementation of this principle require positive policies to address women s specific needs and to equip and empower women to participate at all levels in water resources programs, including decision-making and implementation, in ways defined by them. XI. A framework for gender analysis When dealing with gender the main issues are how work, control and benefits are divided between women and men of different classes and age groups. The following six questions may form the basis for the analysis of gender in water resources development and management: 1. How do men and women use the resource and for what purpose(s)? 2. How are contributions (labor, time, payments, and contributions in kind) to the Development and management of water resources divided between men and women? 3. Who makes the decisions and controls their implementation, at the various levels? 4. Who gets the project or program resources, such as jobs and training? 6

7 5. To whom do the benefits go and the control over these benefits, such as status, water, income resulting from products and functions and decisions on how this income is used? 6. Do some women and men benefit more than others? Indicators for developing and assessing such a gender approach are: the division between men and women, with regards to wealth, the access to information; the contributions to implementation and management; the decision-making power; the share in project resources and benefits; and the control over these benefits. A gender approach analyses current gender divisions and strives for a more balanced division between men and women of different ages, marital and socio-economic status in terms of: Access to information; Amount of physical work; Division of contributions in time and cash; Degree of decision making; Access to resources and benefits: water, training, jobs, income; Control over these resources and benefits. The application of a gender approach within an overall poverty alleviation context means that men and women in the various social categories and economic classes share more equally work and payments, decisions and control over decisions. It means that both obtain more equitable access to resources and benefits and control over the use of benefits, without some groups benefiting and others being marginalized or excluded. A gender analysis has been conducted and resulted in significant outputs that are presented as follows: XII. Total amount of water managed by women in the different categories in Egypt The total amount of water that women manage is billion cubic meters which represents 38% of the total Egyptian share of water from the Nile River (55.5 billion cubic meters). This percentage represents women who share irrigation activities with men but who do not own agricultural lands by themselves ( billion cubic meters). On the other hand, women who own agricultural lands manage 16% of the total amount of water managed by women. XIII. Obstacles Facing Women's Improvement in Water Management Investigations concluded that women play an important role in managing water in rural areas. Therefore, it was very essential to find out about the various obstacles facing rural women in managing water activities. These obstacles can be divided into different categories as follows: 7

8 Educational: High illiteracy ratio. This ratio was very high in the seventies (71%) and has become 51% at the end of the nineties (Women's National Council, 2003) which is still considered a high value compared to men (29%). Girls' un-enrollment at different educational levels. Social and Cultural: Decrease in women's opportunity in receiving their inherited share of lands. Limited women's role in family decision-making. Limited participation with men in the different society and water entities. Lack of appreciation for women's responsibilities within the family. Their family work is still considered as services and not productive. Bad habits and traditions towards women. Economical: Women's role within the family is not considered an economic benefit by men. Under development in the customary agricultural practices in old lands. Limited financial resources for women due to not receiving their inherited shares inland. Health: Un-tested relative marriages. This type of marriage is forced in certain regions and causes lots of health problems without prior tests. Lack of standard precautions when dealing with animals and poultry, as in Birds' Flue infections. Political: Lack of political knowledge. Decrease in women's political participation. Only 38% of women are officially listed in the governmental voting documents. Environmental and Institutional: Urbanization has switched rural women's role from productive to consumptive. Weakness of existing society institutions. Lack of sanitation services in certain regions has degraded the different water vessels. Lack of coordination among non-governmental organizations. 8