Sustainable fisheries in the Mediterranean

Transcription

1 Sustainable fisheries in the Mediterranean Seabirds point of view Training course

2 INDEX Introductory remark: why this course... 5 Incorporating seabirds into the equation Marine environment: understanding fisheries playground Marine ecosystems... 7 What is an ecosystem... 7 Marine ecosystems... 7 Food webs and energy flow... 8 Oceanography and patterns of productivity The Mediterranean, a sanctuary of marine biodiversity...10 Geography...11 Biodiversity...12 Oceanography...12 Important marine ecosystems in the Mediterranean Seabirds life history & ecology...16 What are seabirds?...16 Some curiosities about seabirds...16 Habitat...18 Colonial breeding...18 Life history traits: fidelity and conservatism...19 Foraging at sea highly mobile (breeding and non-breeding period)...22 Seabirds as indicators Mediterranean seabirds...26 Mediterranean seabirds: many species, few individuals...26 Seabird community diversity & values...26 Important areas for seabirds in the Mediterranean Oceans and mankind: the need to find a balanced use Marine ecosystems, a shared environment under pressure...34 Pressures affecting marine ecosystems...35 Cumulative impacts The role of fisheries...40 Historical trends in fisheries...40 Impacts of fishing...42 Fisheries regulation...46 Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU)

3 Recreational fisheries...50 Aquaculture...50 Mediterranean fisheries Seabirds conservation concerns...53 Leading the Red list...53 Full speed decline...53 Threats to seabirds...53 Status and threats to Mediterranean seabirds Seabird-fishery interactions...57 Seabirds as indicators (to fisheries)...57 Seabirds and discards...58 Depletion of seabird competitors...58 Competition...59 Bycatch...60 Harvest Discards and seabirds...61 Advantages of discards to seabirds...61 Discards and seabirds: the other side of the coin...63 What if we ban discards?...64 The discard ban in the Mediterranean, how strict will it be? Bycatch on Seabirds...66 Why is bycatch a problem to seabirds?...66 Where does bycatch occur?...68 What types of gears are involved in bycatch?...68 Which are the main concerns in the Mediterranean?...68 How to solve bycatch?...71 The need of a collaborative approach...71 Mitigation measures examples Relevant fisheries and environmental policies Fisheries-related policies...77 International context...78 European Union context...79 National context...81 Incentives for a more sustainable fishing model Policies related to the conservation of the natural heritage...83 International context...83 European Union context...84 National context

4 Introductory remark: why this course? Fishermen spend a significant part of their life at sea. This way, they form part of the marine environment, depending on its health for the (safe and profitable) continuation of their activity. They usually have a deep knowledge of this environment, gained through experience. Yet the marine environment is complex, and their experience is focused on the issues that directly matters for them, namely fishing resources. The remaining components of the marine environment (or ecosystem) usually get far lesser attention. And the same is true for most formative materials directed to fishermen. This course intends to highlight the value of the marine ecosystem, which can be described as a finely balanced relationship between marine living organisms and their physical environment (the water column and the sea-floor). We humans tend to have a limited view of this ecosystem, as this is an alien environment to us. However, we form part of it, as far as some of our activities are developed at sea. The different components of the any ecosystem are interrelated in a wide diversity of ways, often not obvious, and the alteration of one component may have (unexpected) consequences in others. When ecosystems are in good shape, they have a high ability to cope with external pressures and recover the equilibrium (this is called resilience). However, when there are too many pressures affecting an ecosystem, its resilience may be hampered. This might be the case of marine ecosystems nowadays, as we humans exert severe pressure on a variety of ways, which are starting to produce significant changes at the global scale, from which it might be no way back. The main aims of the course could be summarised as: 1.- Highlight the value of the marine environment as a whole. 2.- Show how human activities may influence the functioning of the marine ecosystem. 3.- Stresses the need to minimize those impacts, providing clues about how to accomplish that. Specifically, this course is addressed to fishermen. The focus is therefore on fishing, and the relation between this activity and the marine environment. This does not mean that fisheries have a higher impact than other activities on the marine environment, but there is where fishermen can make a change. J.M. Arcos 4

5 Incorporating seabirds into the equation The course also intends to highlight those components of the ecosystem that are often disregarded, as they are not specifically targeted by fisheries, although then can be impacted by them. And seabirds are taken as a model. Indeed, when dealing with the environment and fishing resources, most of the available information in training programmes for fishermen is focused in the direct relationship between fishing activities and the fish stocks that they target on. The increasing pressure to attain sustainability, and to provide a wider ecosystem view to fisheries, is slowly changing this approach, with increasing texts addressing a wider view of marine ecosystems, their functioning and their relationship with fisheries. However, seabirds are often disregarded completely, as they have long been seen as intruders at sea. The idea would be like that: they breed inland and move above the sea surface, so that they are not truly marine organisms. This misconception, unconsciously shared by many fishermen, fisheries scientists, politicians and the general public, is even stronger in regions where seabirds are not particularly abundant, like the Mediterranean. However, seabirds spend a major fraction of their life at sea, prey on marine organisms, and interact with fisheries in a wide diversity of ways. Moreover, they play a role as marine top predators, so any changes in the environment can have implications for their populations. For the same reason, they can be suitable indicators of the state of the marine environment, providing benefits that extend to fisheries management, and also acting as red flags by detecting problems that may ultimately affect mankind. And finally, they are the most threatened group of birds, and deserve attention and rapid conservation action on their own, which starts by a proper knowledge of their lifestyles and their problems. For all these reasons, the present course provides a view of marine ecosystems and fisheries from a seabird perspective, with the aim of complementing current training programmes for fishermen. 5 Shearwaters and gulls. J.M. Arcos

6 3.- Relevant fisheries and environmental policies Fisheries-related policies Traditional management of fisheries, when enforced, has focused on maintaining the targeted fish stocks, with little attention to the effects of the activity on the remaining components of the marine ecosystem. However, increasing awareness of the severe impacts of the activity beyond the fishing resources has promoted a new model of management with a wider view, under an ecosystem-based approach (ecosystem-based management or EBM). The EBM approach has been largely promoted through codes of good practices, such as that of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsable Fisheries published in Proper enforcement of this approach is far behind the simple promotion of good practices, although the EBM approach is slowly being incorporated into fisheries regulations. The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is a pioneering example in this regard. J.M. Arcos 76

7 International context Management of fisheries is particularly complex when several countries target the same resources. In this regard the widespread introduction in the mid-seventies of exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and the adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1982 gave states a major control of their resources and provided a better framework for their management. However, fisheries management still had to address several challenges, particularly in international waters, which are no man s land. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) intends to assist to the management of fisheries at the international level. The creation of Regional Fisheries Management Organizations or Arrangements (RFMO/As) is part of that strategy, as these organizations promote collecting fisheries statistics, assessing resources, making management decisions and monitoring activities. RFMO/As play a pivotal role in facilitating intergovernmental cooperation in fisheries management. With recently strengthened mandates, most RFMO/As have now the power to manage according to an ecosystem approach to fisheries. In the Mediterranean, the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) is the RFMO responsible for the management of fisheries at international level. In parallel, countries belonging to the European Union are subject to the EU Common Fisheries Policy (CFP; see below). International fishing policies and seabirds Under the EBM approach, and considering the conservation concerns of many seabird populations worldwide, seabirds are receiving increasing attention internationally from fisheries bodies. In particular, RFMO/As slowly but steadily start addressing the problem of bycatch, following the lead of CCMLR. A first step adopted by practically all RFMOs nowadays is the recognition of the problem. This is usually followed by the incorporation of seabird bycatch on data collection protocols, as well as by the tentative trial of mitigation measures. Then these measures are refined and implemented, to be finally evaluated and, if necessary, modified. Only CCMLR has gone through all these phases, whereas the GFCM is in the early stage of recognizing the problem, under its mid-term strategy ( ) towards the sustainability of Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries. Progress by the world s five RFMOs for highly migratory fish ( tuna commissions ) to address the problem of seabird bycatch, 2004 and 2012, and comparison to CCAMLR in the Southern Ocean (source: BirdLife International). 77

8 Specific concerns about seabird bycatch and the related decline of several populations across the world, and most particularly of albatrosses and petrels, led to the creation of the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP) in This agreement, signed by 13 countries (included 2 Mediterranean countries, Spain and France), provides protection to 31 species of albatrosses and petrels, most of them from the Southern Hemisphere. However, in 2012 the Balearic shearwater was included in the list due to its high conservation concern, as well as its sensitivity to fishing bycatch. European Union context For those Mediterranean countries within the European Union, the EU Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) provides the general framework for fisheries management ( ELEX:32013R1380&from=EN). In addition, there is a specific regulation for the Mediterranean ( europa.eu/lexuriserv/lexuriserv.do?uri=oj:l:2006:409:0011:0085:en:pdf) last updated in However, the CFP was updated in 2013, and should prevail The CFP was last reviewed in The new CFP has a strong environmental content, and promotes the adaptation of the fishing activity to a more respectful model with the marine environment under the ecosystem-based approach to management (EMB). To facilitate these changes the European Commission poses an economic tool that seeks to support the implementation of the CFP, the European and Maritime Fisheries Fund (EMFF). This fund is a key element to encourage fishermen to adapt their practice to a model more respectful with the marine environment. Some of the most relevant measures adopted by this new CFP are briefly described as follows. Ecosystem-based management approach (EBM) The CFP puts the ecosystem-based approach in the core of fisheries management, and claims to follow the precautionary principle. Under this philosophy, the CFP seeks a better coordination with environmental policies, such as the EU Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the Marine Spatial Planning Directive (see below). In particular, there is a strong promotion of the values of marine protected areas in general, and of Natura 2000 sites in particular (see below). J.M. Arcos 78

9 Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) The CFP intends to progressively restore (wherever necessary) and maintain fish stocks above biomass levels capable of producing Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY), no later than This is an ambitious target, though highly necessary given the bad shape of many EU fish stocks. Landing obligation One of the most controversial measures of the new CFP is the landing obligation of all catches, often referred to as discard ban. As described in more detail in section 2.5, minimizing discards through an improvement of selectivity and quota management would be a great contribution to the recovery of marine ecosystems. However, by just landing a fish that was before thrown overboard we are retrieving a significant fraction of biomass from the marine environment, and risk creating new markets (e.g. for fish meal) that could eventually increase the fishing pressure on stocks that were previously ignored. As for seabirds, they should be able to cope the change if the principle of recovering marine ecosystems (including their natural prey) prevails, but in the short term there could be negative effects that require a careful monitoring and, if necessary, the adoption of specific measures to minimize detrimental effects. Seabird Plan of Action (Seabird PoA) Regarding seabirds, and under the EBM approach, the issue of bycatch receives particular attention, and a specific action plan to minimize seabird bycatch was approved in The plan provides a framework for member states to adopt measures to evaluate and minimize bycatch in their respective fleets, but does not provide any mandatory regulation. Aquaculture The new CFP promotes an expansion of aquaculture intended as a solution to the current problem of fishing overexploitation. However, there is still a long way ahead, full of obstacles, and the expansion of aquaculture should be taken with caution (see section 2.2 above for an expanded view of the concerns about aquaculture). 79 Michael Coghlan_CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

10 National context At the national level, every country has its own fishing rules. However, these are generally bound to international agreements, which in the case of the Mediterranean are reflected in the GFCM. For European countries, the EU Common Fisheries Policy is the main reference for national fishing policies, although each country has its way of transposing it. In Spain, the CFP has not been transposed as such, but is being slowly incorporated into different pieces of fisheries and environmental legislation, while the rules of the European text prevail. What has been fully transposed in the European and Maritime Fisheries Fund (EMFF), with an Operational Programme in place that reflects the EU regulation. Incentives for a more sustainable fishing model The need to adopt an ecosystem-based approach to fisheries management is often seen as a drawback by the fishing sector, as they tend to only see limitations to their activity. However, only by adopting a more respectful approach to fisheries will the activity survive in the long term, otherwise fishing is doomed to a socioeconomic crisis (already here) that will also leave marine ecosystems in a very poor condition. Beyond the logic of sustainability as the unique way forward in the long-term, people tend to care more for their immediate future, and that means that they only see drawbacks in the adoption of any environmental measure. It is important to understand that benefits of a sustainable activity may show up early. But, beyond that, there are other potential benefits for those promoting the adoption of an ecosystem-based approach. Among them are the following. Access to funds With the implementation of fishing policies that care for the marine environment, fishing subsidies also evolve to sustain these policies. At the same time, traditional subsidies supporting an increase of fishing effort become more selective and are allocated more carefully (e.g. supporting innovation when it reverts in less polluting engines, but not when it represents promoting fleet overcapacity). This is the case of the European and Maritime Fisheries Fund (EMFF), which includes diverse financing lines to support work towards reducing the impacts of fisheries on the marine environment, particularly prioritizing actions in marine protected areas. Certifications Certifications intend to provide an added value to the products that are produced or captured under certain desirable circumstances. In the case of fishing, they promote fish captured with practices that attempt to minimize their impact on the marine environment. These certifications are often tricky, and can be subject to obscure interests or favour those segments of the fleet that have more resources to pay for an evaluation process. However, they attempt to involve the consumer in the regulation of fisheries, and provided a transparent process of certification, with good traceability of the fish, they can become a useful tool to promote fishing sustainability. The most extended certification for fisheries is that of the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC). It consists on a series of indicators grouped under three principles: (1) sustainable fish stocks; (2) minimising 80

11 environmental impact; and (3) effective management. These indicators or standards must be above certain level to allow the certification to go on. There is usually a pre-certification phase in which potential problems are identified and the fishery is given a period to correct these problems before entering in the true certification process. MSC also produces certifications for chains of custody, which ensure the traceability of the fish and their adequate processing. Complementary activities The promotion of fishing practices respectful with the marine environment is often accompanied by the development of activities that can be conducted by the fishermen and that may bring certain economic input that might compensate the limitations imposed by a more restricted fishing activity. This is particularly important for artisanal vessels, which are less flexible to cope with changes than the big industry, and for whom small economic inputs may become an important complement to their traditional earnings through fishing. For instance, in some regions fishermen are encouraged to collect litter from the marine environment and bring it to port, in occasions with economic compensations, and always with the promotion of an environmentalfriendly image for the fishermen. Fishermen can also become involved in monitoring and vigilance activities, particularly in protected areas. Finally, fishing tourism is a promising activity that can bring wealth to small fishing communities. This type of tourism promotes the visit to fishing ports and other related installations on land, as well as having tourists onboard to know the fishing activity and/or to enjoy the marine environment from a privileged platform. J.M. Arcos 81

12 3.2.- Policies related to the conservation of the natural heritage Conservation of the marine environment has been lagged behind that of terrestrial environments, but it is receiving increasing attention, and a number of environmental policies are in place to attempt halting the deterioration of the global seas. Moreover, under the ecosystem-based management approach to fisheries, fishing and environmental policies are increasingly interconnected, and a good understanding of environmental policies from the fishing sector is increasingly convenient. International context At international level there are several conventions and agreements to halt the deterioration of the (marine) environment. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is probably one of the most relevant agreements, and includes a programme on marine and coastal biodiversity. One of the best known targets of the CBD is to designate as protected areas at least 10% of the seas by 2020, including international waters. The Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels is another relevant agreement regarding the interaction between seabirds and fisheries, as described above (section 3.1). At Mediterranean level, the Barcelona Convention provides the basis for the conservation of the marine environment, through the Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean: SPA/BD Protocol. The protocol includes a list of species regarded as endangered or threatened within the Mediterranean basin (Annex II), including 25 seabirds and coastal birds. It also promotes the designation of Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean (SPAMI). This figure of protection is of particular relevance when international waters and/or areas shared by two or more countries are identified as meriting protection, since the cooperation of different countries is needed. J.M. Arcos 82

13 European Union context There are two directives within the European Union legislation that first set the background for environmental protection, the Birds Directive (first approved in 1979, but later revised; 2009/147/EC) and the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). For years these directives were scarcely connected to other legislation, but this has changed recently, and there is increasing willingness to find synergies between different regulations. Two new directives are fundamental to ensure such integration of policies in the marine environment: the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC) and the Maritime Spatial Planning Directive (2014/89/EU). With this background, the last revision of the Common Fisheries Policy (2013) pays particular attention to environmental issues and promotes the integration of environmental policies into fisheries regulation. Birds & Habitats Directives The Birds and Habitats Directives form the cornerstone of Europe s nature conservation policy. They are built around two pillars: The protection of those animals and plants that are considered as particularly sensitive, with over 1000 species listed, as well as those habitat types of particular importance for biodiversity, such as certain forests, wetlands, seagrass prairies, etc., totalling over 200 types. The establishment of a network of protected areas, the Natura 2000 network. This network deserves particular attention and is treated separately unde the following sub-head. As for Mediterranean seabirds, there are several species listed in Annex I of the Birds Directive, including at least 14 regular breeders. Natura 2000 network Natura 2000 plays a major role in the EU conservation strategy. The aim of the network is to ensure the longterm survival of Europe s most valuable and threatened species and habitats, through the protection of their most relevant sites. So far over 27,000 sites have been designated in Europe, covering about 1,150,000 km 2. The network includes different types of sites. On the one side we have the Special Protection Areas (SPAs) proposed under the Birds Directive. On the other side we have the Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) proposed under the Habitats Directive. In this latter case, there is an intermediate figure, the Sites of Community Importance (SCI). The aim of the Natura 2000 network, irrespective of the type of site, is to protect the values for which the sites have been declared (sensitive species and their habitats, or directly sensitive habitats), but at the same time promote the maximum compatibility with the human activities developed there, through management plans tailored to each case. These plans promote the uses that favour social and economic sustainability, while restrictions may involve activities that have a severe impact on the environment. Natura 2000 in land has been widely implemented in the EU, with coverage of about 18% of the region s surface. However, its marine counterpart has been lagged behind, and hardly covers 6% of the EU marine surface. Moreover, most marine sites are coastal and small, whereas pelagic waters and deep underwater habitats have received little attention. This is slowly changing, though, with an increasing attention to extend the marine Natura 2000 network by several countries, urged by the European Commission. One of the leading examples is that of Spain, that in 2014 multiplied by eight the marine area covered by Natura 2000, passing from less than 1 to over 8% of its total marine area. In this and other cases, the marine Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBA) identified by BirdLife partners have played a major role of guiding the process of SPAs designation, with current overlap between SPAs and IBAs being above 90%. 83

14 Although there have been notable advances in the designation of marine Natura 2000 sites in recent years, most of the sites are still pending of management plans. The next challenge is to develop and implement these plans seeking the implication and acceptance of all stakeholders, while being efficient and finding the right balance between environment conservation and socioeconomic sustainability. Many of the European policies and funds directed to promote environmentally respectful activities pay special attention to Natura Hence, the network has the potential to develop and promote such activities, bringing opportunities to the local communities. Marine strategies The Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) is the first European law specifically directed to protect biodiversity. The Directive enshrines in a legislative framework the ecosystem approach to the management of human activities having an impact on the marine environment, integrating the concepts of environmental protection and sustainable use. Its ultimate aim is to attain the so called Good Environmental Status (GES) for all European seas by The GES is evaluated for 11 different qualitative descriptors (e.g. biodiversity, fishing resources, marine food webs, pollutants and others), each of them containing a set of specific criteria and indicators that allow a detailed evaluation of GES. The Directive establishes four European marine regions (Baltic Sea, North-east Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea), each of them sub-divided in sub-regions, on the basis of geographical and environmental 84

15 criteria. EU member states are bound to develop their own marine strategies, although coordination with neighbouring states for a coherent regional approach is encouraged. On the other hand, a single member state can have different marine strategies, if its territory encompasses different regions and/or sub-regions. The marine strategies are intended to be reviewed every 6 years. Each 6-year cycle, starting in 2012, consists of the following phases: 1. Initial assessment of the current environmental status, determination of GES and establishment of environmental targets and associated indicators to attain GES by 2020 (2012). 2. Establishment of monitoring programmes that will help evaluating the GES for the different descriptors, with their many criteria and indicators (2014). 3. Development of a programme of measures to ensure the achievement of GES by 2020 (2015). 4. Review and preparation of the second cycle ( ). Marine Spatial Planning The increasing diversity of activities conducted in the marine environment, such as fishing, aquaculture, oil drilling, exploitation of renewable energies, shipping and other uses, has highlighted the need to organize them in an ordered, safe, efficient and sustainable manner. The Marine Spatial Planning Directive intends to provide such a coherence and ordering, from a spatial perspective. This Directive was approved in 2014 and is in the process of being implemented at national level by member states. National context As with fisheries, each member state has its own environmental rules, but they mirror the European legislation described above. In Spain, the most relevant regulations are described as follows. Law for the protection of natural heritage and biodiversity This law, approved in 2007, is the main piece of legislation regarding the protection of biodiversity in Spain, transposing the European Birds and Habitats Directives. Particular attention deserves the Natura 2000 network. The network is comparatively advanced in terms of designation, with about 27% of the terrestrial surface protected. The marine environment, on the other hand, was left far behind until very recently, with less than 1% of its surface protected. This changed in 2014, when the government announced the designation of 10 new SCIs and 39 SPAs. This led to an 8 times increase of the coverage of the network, that in the case of the SPAs was of 20 times, passing from 0.25 to 5% of the Spanish jurisdictional waters. Despite the Spanish designation process posing a model for other countries, there is a lot of work ahead till the establishment of appropriate management plans in the (marine) Natura 2000 sites. A new European Integrated Project, LIFE IP INTEMARES, intends to guide this process ensuring the participation of all stakeholders. Law for the protection of the marine environment This law was approved in 2010 as a transposition of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), and sets the basis for the development of the Spanish marine strategies. These strategies are developed independently for 5 sub-regions: North Atlantic, South Atlantic, Canary Islands waters, Straits of Gibraltar-Alboran Sea, and Levantine-Balearic waters. 85