Materials and the Environment

Transcription

1 Fall 2014 Materials and the Environment Ulrike G.K. Wegst Thayer School of Engineering Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH MacLean 309 Classes of Materials 1

2 Materials, Properties and Applications Design Requirements: Mechanical 2

3 Thermal, Electrical, Optical, Magnetic, Environmental Geo-Economic and Environmental Properties 3

4 Materials: Annual World Production Natural fibers: cotton, jute, silk, wool Man-made fibers: polyester, nylon, acrylic, cellulosics Current Annual World Production of 29 Critical Elements What are strategic materials? Ordinary materials that perform essential functions (e.g. Cu, Mn, Cr) (can generally be recycled) Rare or highly localized materials that enable new technologies (Nd, In, Pt) (not easy to recycle) Many of the critical elements are used in power generation. A major shift from one power system to another can put pressure on their supply. 4

5 Major Renewable Energy Sources Geothermal Wind Hydroelectric Solar Biomass How many different materials? How much of each? Materials: PV Power Intensity (kg/kw nom ) Aluminum Antimony (dopant) 0.10 Copper* 0.8 EVA Gallium* (dopant) 0.50 Galvanized mild steel Indium* 0.08 Lead tin solder 0.08 Silane (amorphous silicon) 0.49 Silver* 0.08 Stainless steel Tellurium* (dopant) 0.10 Ytterbium* (dopant) 0.10 Total mass, all materials 165 Notes These are masses per rated kw Starred * materials are strategic Materials: Nuclear Power Intensity (kg/ kw nom ) Aluminum Boron 0.01 Brass/bronze 0.04 Cadmium 0.01 Carbon steel Chromium* Concrete Copper* Inconel Indium* 0.01 Lead Manganese* Nickel* PVC Silver* 0.01 Stainless steel Uranium* Zirconium* Total mass, all materials

6 Solar Concentration Thermal System Typically uses parabolic reflectors, which can be replaced by Fresnel mirrors. A Silicon-Based Photovoltaic Panel. 6

7 Strategic Materials in Solar Systems Scenario: 2,000 GW of Solar Power system by 2020 The bars show the demand for the material in units of the global production of that material in Phosphoric Acid and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 7

8 Strategic Materials used in Fuel Cells Scenario: 2,000 GW of Fuel Cell Power system by 2020 The bars show the demand for the material in units of the global production of that material in A Wind Turbine (Figure developed from a diagram of the US Department of Energy, www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro). 8

9 Strategic Materials used in Wind Power Systems Scenario: 2,000 GW of Wind Power System by 2020 The bars show the demand for the material in units of the global production of that material in Schematic of a Hydroelectric Plant 9

10 Strategic Materials used in Hydroelectric Power Systems Scenario: 2,000 GW of Hydroelectric Power by 2020 The bars show the demand for the material in units of the global production of that material in Material Use in the U.S. Reference: 1 Matos, G. (2012) Use of Raw Materials in the United States From 1900 Through U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 10

11 Ore Grade and Mining Wastes Generated The Declining Quality of Copper Ore Mined in the US. Depletion of Mineral Ores Greatly Increases the Mining Wastes Generated in Their Production Ores averaging between 2 and 2.5% copper were mined in the US before Since then the average grade has declined. Peak in the 1930s and 1980s because in economic downturns only mines with richest ores were operating (Sources: US Bureau of Mines, USGS). Mining wastes per ton of final metal barely increases for ores depleting from 8 to 3%, below 3% it increases dramatically. Eventually, cost of dealing with wastes will exceed the value of metal produced. Meadows, Meadows, Randers, Behrens (1972) The Limits to Growth Price versus Reserves Chart 11

12 Price versus Embodied Energy (Primary) The Need for Resource Efficiency 12

13 Municipal Solid Waste Recovery References 17 U.S. EPA (2013) Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in The United States Facts and Figures for Term Sustainability (Nachhaltigkeit) Coined 1713 ( Wikimedia Commons) Hans Carl von Carlowitz ( ) Carlowitz is frequently credited for laying the framework for the contemporary dialogue on sustainability was head mining administrator in Freiberg, Germany and son of a forest manager, was was the first to document the danger of deforestation. 13

14 Sustainability and Industrial Ecology Materials and the Product Life-Cycle Resources Emissions and waste Combust Landfill 14

15 Materials and the Product Life-Cycle Resources Life cycle assessment (LCA) Emissions and waste Combust Landfill Product Assessment and Design Guidance Market need Problem statement Alternative schemes Layout and materials Concept Embodiment Eco Audit CAD, FE analysis, optimization, costing Detail Product specification Production Life cycle assessment 15

16 Products are complex McLellan (2013) Things Come Apart and contain many parts McLellan (2013) Things Come Apart 16

17 that are made from many different materials McLellan (2013) Things Come Apart which often occur in only small amounts each McLellan (2013) Things Come Apart 17

18 and differ in their environmental impact! McLellan (2013) Things Come Apart Material Composition of Selected Products 24. U.S. DOE, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (2013) Transportation Energy Data Book, Edition OECD Environment Directorate (2010) Materials Case Study 1: Critical Metals and Mobile Devices. 26. Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers (2002) Refrigerators Energy Efficiency and Consumption Trends. 18

19 Eco-AuditDesign Guidance Market need Problem statement Alternative schemes Concept Design guidance Layout and materials Embodiment Eco Audit CAD, FE analysis, optimization, costing Detail Product specification Product assessment Production Life cycle assessment Fast and Easy Analysis: The EcoAudit Tool Product name: Super Gizmo ^ 1. Material, manufacture and end of life? 1 Component 1 Cast iron 30% 2.4 Casting Recycle 1 Component 2 Polypropylene 0% 0.35 Molding Landfill How many? Name Choose material from CES DB tree Set recycle content 0 100% Enter mass Choose process Choose end-of-life path v 2. Transport? v 3. Use? HELP at each step Summarize results in: Survey charts v 4. Report? Full report 19

20 Example: Bottled Water (100 Units) 1 litre PET bottle with PP cap Blow molded Filled, transported 550 km Refrigerated for 2 days, then drunk Glass Bottle (100 Units) 1 litre glass bottle with aluminum cap Glass molded Filled, transported 550 km Refrigerated for 2 days, then drunk 20

21 The Evaluation The audit reveals the most energy and carbon intensive steps and allows rapid What if PET Glass? PET vs. Glass and Recycled vs. Virgin Material? Click Compare with. Copy of current content The fast comparison allows design decisions on-the-fly Set Recycle content to 100% = Virgin PET Can explore: Material choice Recycle content Transport mode Transport distance Use pattern Electric energy mix End of life choice = Virgin Glass = Recycled PET 21

22 Determine Dominant Life Phase(s) Approximate values for the energy consumed at each life phase for a range of products. The disposal phase is not shown because there are many alternatives for each product. The Eco Audit: A Tool for the Analysis of Life Phases Rational approaches to the ecodesign of products start with an analysis of the phase of life to be targeted. Its results guide redesign and materials selection to minimize environmental impact. The disposal phase, shown here as part of the overall strategy, is not included in the current version of the tool. 22

23 Eco-Design: Improvements in TVs Change in technology from Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to Liquid Crystal DisplayLCD Improvement Factor: Energy 32 CRT TV 32 LCD TV 32 LCD TV 172 W 155 W 90 W ~2 Weight 59 Kg 34 Kg 13 Kg ~4.5 Packaging 6.6 Kg 6.0 Kg 3.0 Kg ~2 Lead content 3200 g 100 g 0 g Adapted from : Jan-Willem Scheijgrond, Philips Corporate Sustainability Office DG Development, 3 February 2011, Brussels Eco-Design: Improvements to Vacuum Cleaner High Density (HD) or direct-drive permanent magnet (PM) synchronous are more efficient than induction motors. However permanent magnets contain rare earth elements such as Neodymium! New High Density (HD) motor to save energy Up to 35% more efficient than other green models in the market Packaging: >90% recycled material DFU/Leaflets: 100% recycled material Partly made of bio-based and recycled materials Reducing demand for virgin materials, creating less waste Made of 97% PVC free material Adapted from : Jan-Willem Scheijgrond, Philips Corporate Sustainability Office DG Development, 3 February 2011, Brussels 23

24 The End of Life? Where does this all go? What happens to it at its destination? What is the impact on people and the environment there? Cushman-Roisin For a long time: Unethical and Illegal Disposal Are we still operating with the slogan out of sight out of mind? Shipment to and dumping in poor countries violates the 1989 Basel Convention on hazardous waste (which came into force in 1992). Cushman-Roisin 24

25 Now frequently viewed as a Business Opportunity Recycle Fractions for Comparison 60 % of the aluminum in cans comes from recycled cans 25% - 35% of steel in cars is recycled steel Paper industry: 50 % of raw material comes from recovered paper and board Adapted from : Jan-Willem Scheijgrond, Philips Corporate Sustainability Office DG Development, 3 February 2011, Brussels 25

26 Extended Producer Responsibility: EU ELV Directive: ELV = End of Life Vehicles Image_Produkt_Verantwortung/Produktverantwortung_recyclingrate_eng.png Natural Fiber Reinforced Composites in Automobiles 26

27 Ford s Soybean Car : Natural Fiber-Reinforced Biopolymer Panel 1941 Why use up the forests which were centuries in the making and the mines which required ages to lay down, if we can get the equivalent of forest and mineral products in the annual growth of the hemp fields? Henry Ford EcoElise by Lotus 2014 Hemp-Fiber Composites

28 High Density Concrete versus Cathedral of Los Angeles, USA. Rafael Moneo Architect Stata Center, MIT, USA. F.O. Gehry Architect High density concrete with stainless steel reinforcement Stainless steel, zinc coated titanium, polymer sealants Rammed Earth and Adobe Shells 28

29 Silica Aerogels versus Apartment Building, Munich, Germany. Thomas Herzog, Architect. Silica aerogels allowing.. Translucent walls with high thermal resistance Straw Bale Houses 29

30 The Materials Evolution continues? 3.3 M Ashby, 1986 with new material development and a revival of biological (renewable) materials The Lorax by Dr. Seuss UNLESS someone like you cares a whole awful lot, nothing is going to get better. It s not. SO Catch! calls the Once-ler He lets something fall. It s the last one of all! You are in charge of the last of the Truffula Seeds. And Truffula Trees are what everyone needs Plant a new Truffula. Treat it with care. Give it clean water. And feed it fresh air. Grow a forest. Protect it from axes that hack. Then the Lorax and all of his friends may come back. Theodor Ted Geisel Dartmouth Class of

31 Industrial Ecology 171 McLellan (2013) Things Come Apart 31