Ph.D. student: Supervisor: Prof. Andrea Gambaro (University Ca Foscari) Dr. Antonio Donateo (ISAC-CNR U.O.S. Lecce) Eva Merico

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1 Supervisor: Prof. Andrea Gambaro (University Ca Foscari) Dr. Antonio Donateo (ISAC-CNR U.O.S. Lecce) Ph.D. student: Eva Merico

2 Contents Introduction Measurement sites Field campaigns Instrumental set-up Ships and vehicular traffic Methodologies Results Inter-annual trends Conclusions

3 Present Next future Introduction shipping worldwide Green shipping UNCTAD, 2015 o New more efficient ships o Green fuels o Retrofitting systems (i.e. scrubbers) o Cold ironing o Sustainable ports development management plans

4 Introduction shipping global emissions 1 Low-grade marine fuel oil contains 3,500 times more sulphur than road diesel (Nature, 2014) Comparable annual emissions from road transport and international shipping Year 2000 Eyring et al., 2005 Nature (2014)

5 Introduction shipping global emissions 2 Eide et al., 2007; Endresen et al., 2008 Lloyd s Register, 2002 o Relevant source of atmospheric pollution for CO 2, NO X, SO 2 and PM (EEA Technical report N. 4/2013, 2013) o Global traffic growth of 3 times in the last 50 years o Increase of CO 2 emissions of 30%-45% from 2007 to 2020 and of 150%-300% from 2007 to 2050 (IEA/OECD, 2009) o Growth in container activity of 65%-95% by 2020 and 400%- 800% by 2050 (IMO, 2014)

6 Introduction Climate effects Different RF on different temporal scales A Present B Future Eyring et al., 2010 Negative net RF effect (cooling) -0.4 W/m 2 Indirect effects largely uncertain Fuglestvedt et al., 2008

7 Introduction Health effects Shi and Singh, 2003; UN-DESA, Winebrake et al., 2009 PM 2.5 ship emissions Corbett et al., 2007 o o o 60,000 premature deaths annually at global scale related to PM emissions (Corbett et al., 2007) Available studies focused on PM exposure Avoidance of 390 hospital admissions by ECA designation (Viana et al., 2015)

8 Introduction - Legislation ECA in the world Local initiatives (Venice) Global (IMO) MARPOL Convention 73/78 Annex VI Europe Directive 2012/33/EU Year Agreement % S navigation % S at berth 2007 Venice Blue Flag I 2.5% (+0.5%) 2.5% (+0.5%) 2008 Venice Blue Flag I 2.0% (+0.5%) 1.5% (+0.25%) 2009 Venice Blue Flag I 2.0% 1.5% 2013 Venice Blue Flag II 0.1% 0.1%

9 Focus of this study Viana et al., 2014 o What? Assessment of shipping contribution to gaseous and PM pollutants concentration in harbour areas o o Where? Adriatic-Ionian ports of Brindisi and Venice (Italy) o Why? 1. Scarce and fragmentary evidences on gases, particle size distribution, ultrafine and nanoparticles emitted by ships along the Adriatic Sea 2. Effectiveness of local voluntary agreements to curb shipping emissions in addition to mandatory regulations

10 . Measurements site 1 - Venice St. Marittima In 2013 first cruise homeport in the Mediterranean Sea with over 2,000,000 passengers (Venice Port Authority) Infrared (nightand-day) network video camera Telescopic mast at 9.6 m Thermohygrometer and nephelometer

11 Èù Measurements site 2 - Brindisi International airport 2,000,000 passengers Telescopic mast at 9.6 m Airport Harbour Infrared (nightand-day) network video camera Urban area Industrial area Nephelometer Optical Particle Counter (OPC) Medium-size town 88,667 inhabitants Industrial site (pharmaceutical industry, petrochemical plant, waste incinerator etc.) HARBOUR 9.5 Mtons of goods 520,000 passengers 175,000 vehicles Three basins (4,900,000 m 2 total area) (Brindisi Port Authority)

12 Field campaigns Period PNC PM 2.5 PM 1 PM 10 size Aerosol distribution O 3 SO 2 NO 2 and NO, NO X Gaseous emissions (DOAS) PAHs and PM 2.5 chemistry June-26 July; 28 August - 26 September July-1 September July-24 September 10 June-22 October June-15 October Legend Venice Brindisi CESAPO - Contribution of Emission Sources on the Air quality of the POrt-cities in Greece and Italy POSEIDON - POllution monitoring of Ship Emissions: an IntegrateD approach for harbours of the Adriatic basin

13 Instrumental set-up Aerosol characterization 1 Daily PM 2.5 samples on filter substrates Venice Brindisi Venice Brindisi Fast-response optical detector pdr photometer (Personal Data logging Real time Aerosol Monitor) Gravimetric determination by weighing procedure PM 2.5 high resolution measurements (frequency 1 Hz)

14 Instrumental set-up Aerosol characterization 2 Condensation Particle Counter (CPC) Particle Number Concentration - PNC Venice Range nm (1 min resolution) Brindisi Optical Particle Counter (OPC) range µm (31 channels) Brindisi Mass and number particle size distribution (1-min resolution) Range nm (1 s resolution)

15 Instrumental set-up Gaseous pollutants Gas analysers of O 3, NO, NO 2, NO X, SO 2 concentration (5-min resolution) Brindisi UV-VIS remote sensing DOAS system Flow-rate emission (FRE) of NO 2 and SO 2 of ships by a set of off-axis measurements (only diurnal)

16 Ships and vehicular traffic PM Prolung. Nuovo Stazione Sporgente Marittima Cruise Terminal PM Costa Morena Terrare Photo frames every 30 s of quay areas (Brindisi) and of the Channel (Venice) PM AM PM AM Brindisi Venice Database of the local Port Authorities (i.e. arrival/departure time) Integrated ship traffic database PM AM Costa Morena Terrare Punta PM AM

17 Methodology Primary contribution estimation Primary contribution (Contini et al., J. Environ. Manag. 92, pp , 2011) Venice Δ P = difference of average concentrations during ship passages and with no ships F P = fraction of cases influenced by ships C D = average concentrations when the site is downwind Variability in results (maximum-minimum) obtained with slight changes (±10 ) in wind direction sector definition Brindisi

18 Methodology Emission inventories INEMAR databases for year 2010 Maritime emissions extrapolated at Municipality resolution level Venice Brindisi APICE project (2013) Bottom-up methodology (EMEP/EEA, 2013) In absence of engine and fuel type data Statistical distribution of the world fleet (2010) Manoeuvring Hotelling

19 Methodology Modelling approach Simulation domains Meteorological model Version Zero-out method: (University of Patras and Thessaloniki) Simulation of emission, dispersion, chemical reaction and removal of pollutants on 3D grid Version 5.3 δ Conc with no % = 100 Conc Conc with Simulation periods: January and July 2012

20 Methodology Remote sensing (FRE-DOAS) Gaseous columnar concentration of NO 2 and SO 2 by a set of off-axis measurements of diffuse solar radiation at 3 different zenithal angles along the same vertical plane Estimated FRE for nocturnal hours by using data ship traffic and diurnal data Brindisi Spectral ranges: nm for SO nm for NO 2

21 Results Meteorological conditions No breeze patterns Prevalent wind direction NNW Wind velocity m/s Downwind periods 48% Venice Typical breeze regime Wind velocity m/s Downwind periods in the morning Similar meterological conditions during all campaigns in Venice (Contini et al., 2015)

22 Results High resolution measurements 1 Brindisi Merico et al., 2016

23 Results High resolution measurements 2 Venice Contini et al., 2015

24 Results Daily patterns (Brindisi) o o Slight increase (+8%) in ship traffic in 2014 compared to 2012 with changes in the arrival/departure schedule Correlation between ship traffic pattern and daily trend in PNC and SO 2 concentration o Loading/unloading activities affected NO 2 concentration

25 Results Weekly and daily patterns (Venice) o Maximum tourist ship traffic during weekend and two clear daily peaks (early morning and afternoon) o Small PM 2.5 concentration peaks in nightime (site downwind) o No evident weekly trend of PNC and one pronounced daily peak at 7 a.m.

26 Results Polar plots (Brindisi) SO 2 PM 2.5 NO PNC Polar plots obtained with 30 min-averages Sector WNW-ENE influenced by the harbour

27 Results Primary contribution 1 (Brindisi) Harbour logistics strongly influenced NO, PNC and ozone depletion

28 Results Primary contribution 2 (Brindisi) o Significant impact of hotelling phase on PNC <0.25, NO and NO 2 RATIO (manoeuvring+hotelling)/manoeuvring o Descending contribution from gaseous pollutants (except O 3 ) to PNC to PM concentrations Contribution % of manoeuvring and hotelling operational modes

29 Results Particle size distribution (Brindisi) o Absolute maximum PNC <0.25 and D p 0.35 µm o Relative minimum D p µm o For manoeuvring PM 1 80% and PM % of the total contribution to PM (in mass) Adding hotelling phase PM % and PM %

30 Results Plume analysis (Brindisi) dmax 870 m 1 h 35 min dmin 56 m SO 2 peak duration Space: min/max distance docksampling site Velocity: average wind velocity Average duration in different phases Manoeuvring 40 ± 15 min Hotelling 8.5 ± 6 hours Min-Max plume age 15 s s (slightly aged) Ratio NO/NO ± 1.3 with plumes 0.35 ± 0.6 without plumes

31 Results Primary contribution (Venice) Passenger traffic: : 25.4% : 17.6% % primary contribution to PM Venice Blue Flag I European Directive 2005/33/EC Contribution normalized by average daily ship traffic

32 Results Inter-annual trends (Brindisi) o Average emissions substantially equal through the years o o o Good agreement between emission inventory estimates of NO 2 and SO 2 and DOAS measurements Primary contribution almost constant to PM but increased on PNC from 2012 to 2014, due to hotelling phase PM mainly affected by manoeuvring and PNC by hotelling

33 Results Emission inventory estimates Total maritime emissions (manoeuvring+hotelling) o Variability related to specific harbour vocation and ship typologies o Hotelling phase share reported in % Venice Brindisi Road and maritime emissions of PM and NO X comparable at Municipality level Road transport includes also water traffic from public transport

34 January 2012 July 2012 Results Modelling results NO 90% International routes 80% Adriatic 90% International routes 60% Adriatic SO 2 PM % International routes 7% Adriatic NO 80% International routes 50% Adriatic 80% International routes SO 40% Adriatic PM % International routes 5% Adriatic

35 Conclusions Aim: analysis of contribution of shipping emissions to local air quality in Brindisi and Venice Approach: experimental measurements, emission inventories and numerical simulations Results: Venice: effectiveness of the European legislation and voluntary agreements (Venice Blue Flag) in reducing primary shipping impact Brindisi: hotelling phase not negligible role in influencing gaseous pollutants concentration with respect to particles concentrations both in number and mass o PNC (not included in legislation) suitable parameter in addition to PM limits o Emissions from maritime transport comparable to road transport at local level o Significant impact at larger scale especially in summer o Need to develop sustainable management plans for harbour areas

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