Industrial Air Pollution Monitoring

Transcription

1 Industrial Air Pollution Monitoring

2 Environmental Management Series Edited by Professor J. Cairns, Jr, University Center for Environmental and Hazardous Materials Studies, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, USA and Professor R.M. Harrison, Institute of Public and Environmental Health, University of Birmingham, UK. The current expansion of both public and scientific interest in environmental issues has not been accompanied by a commensurate production of adequate books, and those which are available are widely variable in approach and depth. The Environmental Management Series (formerly the Pollution Monitoring Series) has been established to meet the need for a set of in-depth volumes dealing with environmental issues, particularly with regard to a sustainable future. The series is published by Chapman & Hall (previously published by Elsevier Applied Science). Over a period of years, it has been building up to form a library of reference books covering most of the major topics within this diverse field. The level of presentation is advanced, aimed primarily at a research/consultancy readership. Coverage includes all aspects of environmental science and engineering relevant to evaluation and management of the natural and human-modified environment, as well as topics dealing with the political, economic, legal and social considerations pertaining to environmental management. Already published 1. Instrumental Analysis Of Pollutants (1991) C.N. Hewitt (ed.) ISBN: X. 2. Pollution Of The Arctic Atmosphere (1991) w.t. Sturges (ed.) ISBN: Organic Contaminants In The Environment (1991) K.c. Jones (ed.) ISBN: Methods Of Environmental Data Analysis (1992, reprinted 1995) CN. Hewitt (ed.) ISBN: Atmospheric Acidity (1992) M. Radojevic and R.M. Harrison (eds) ISBN: Global Atmospheric Chemical Change (1993, reprinted 1995) C.N. Hewitt and w.t. Sturges (eds) ISBN: Biomonitoring Of Trace Aquatic Contaminants (1992, reprinted 1994) D.J.H. Phillips and P.S. Rainbow (eds) ISBN: Industrial Air Pollution Monitoring (1997) A.G. Clarke (ed.) ISBN Topics currently in preparation include the following Major Chemical Accidents and their Impact on Terrestrial Ecosystems. A. Meharg. ISBN: Artificial Reefs. A. Jensen, K. Collins and A. Lockwood (eds). ISBN: Biology of Pollution in Major River Systems. T. Langford. ISBN: (Hb), (Pb). Air Pollution Handbook, 3rd edition. R.M. Harrison and C.N. Hewitt (eds). ISBN:

3 Industrial Air Pollution Monitoring Edited by Andrew G. Clarke Department of Fuel and Energy, University of Leeds, UK CHAPMAN &. HALL London' New York' Tokyo Melbourne' Madras

4 Published by Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEI 8HN, UK Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN, UK Chapman & Hall GmbH, Pappelallee 3, Weinheim, Germany Chapman & Hall USA, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003, USA Chapman & Hall Japan, ITP-Japan, Kyowa Building, 3E Hirakawacho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan Chapman & Hall Australia, 102 Dodds Street, South Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia Chapman & Hall India, R. Seshadri, 32 Second Main Road, CIT East, Madras , India First edition Chapman & Hall Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1998 Typeset in 10/12pt Palatino by Saxon Graphics Ltd ISBN-13: DOT: / e-isbn-13: Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the London address printed on this page. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: Printed on permanent acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSI/NISO Z and ANSI/NISO Z

5 Contents Contributors Series editors' foreword Preface ix xi xiii 1 Legislation on emissions of air pollutants and their monitoring 1 Andrew G. Clarke 1.1 Why monitor emissions? Emissions limits Monitoring requirements 15 2 Gas composition calculations 20 Bernard M. Gibbs 2.1 Units Wet and dry gas Combustion fundamentals The 'mole' method of calculation for gases Combustion and emissions calculations for solid and liquid fuels or wastes Calculations based on flue gas analysis 29 3 Particulate emissions by extractive sampling 33 Andrew G. Clarke and George Bartle 3.1 Introduction Basic principles Equipment Practical aspects of sampling 51

6 vi Contents 4 Particulate emissions - optical and other methods for continuous monitoring from a point source 61 Richard Horne 4.1 The definition of particulate emissions Design of optical devices for continuous measurement Other techniques for continuous measurement Interaction of light with particles Practical limitations Summary 78 5 Gas sampling and conditioning 81 Andrew G. Clarke 5.1 General considerations Representative sampling Sampling probes and transfer lines Sample conditioning Other features 95 6 Batch sampling and wet chemical methods of analysis 100 Andrew G. Clarke 6.1 Introduction Moisture Simple combustion gases Other gas chromatography applications Aqueous absorption and wet chemical analysis Sulphur compounds Nitrogen compounds Halogen compounds Metals Optical methods of analysis. 1 Infra-red 120 Colin Blackmore 7.1 In trod uction Infra-red spectra of typical polluting gases Types of analyser Comparison between extractive and cross-duct systems Conclusions Optical methods of gas analysis. 2 Visible and ultra-violet 138 John Turnbull 8.1 Introduction Ultra-violet-'visible absorption principles Practical NDUV analyser Dispersive UV Chemiluminescent analysers 150

7 Contents 9 Volatile organics 157 Stephen Richardson and Nigel Gibson 9.1 Background Sampling of organic compounds Separating organic compounds Analysis of organic compounds Sampling and analysis of PAR, dioxins and furans 171 Paul T Williams 10.1 Introduction Chemistry and toxicology Emissions from combustion sources Sampling Analysis Summary Electrochemical and other non-optical techniques 192 Andrew G. Clarke and Ian Watson 11.1 Introduction Methods for oxygen Other low-temperature electrochemical cells High-temperature electrochemical cells Semiconductor sensors Combustible gas detectors Mass spectrometry Ion mobility spectrometry Calibration of continuous gaseous emission measuring systems 212 David S. Walker 12.1 Introduction Sampling and accuracy of CEMS Types of CEMS and available calibration methods Calibration with standard reference gas mixtures Calibration using standard reference test methods Calibration using verified CEMS Calibration gases 229 John Scawin 13.1 Introduction Calibration gas selection Calibration gas mixture preparation Static volumetric methods Dynamic volumetric methods Traceability 235 vii

8 viii Contents 13.7 Traceability of calibration gas mixtures 13.8 Stability 13.9 'Spectra Seal' Data logging 242 Richard Grant 14.1 Emission monitoring requirements Methods of emission monitoring Summary Quality assurance and quality control in emissions monitoring 257 Simon Medhurst and David Miles 15.1 Introduction Quality management for emissions monitoring 15.3 Organization and management 15.4 Quality systems 15.5 Staff 15.6 Equipment 15.7 Measurement traceability and calibration 15.8 Sample storage and transport 15.9 Quality audits and reviews Common sources of error 16 Statistics in relation to emissions monitoring Andrew G. Clarke 16.1 Introduction 16.2 The data Fundamentals Confidence limits Hypothesis testing Comparison of means Statistics relating to the percentile points of a distribution 280 Appendices A British Standards 285 B German VOl Standards (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure) 287 C US EPA Standard Methods 290 D Main provisions for testing to British Standard 3405: Index 297

9 Contributors Dr Andrew G. Clarke (Editor) Senior Lecturer, Department of Fuel and Energy, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT Mr George Bartle (Recently retired from H.M. Inspectorate of Pollution, Leeds), 17 Hesketh Lane, Tingley, Wakefield, West Yorkshire WF3 1AU Mr Colin Blackmore (This work was completed when the author was Area Sales Manager, Analytical Developments Co. Ltd.), Southern UK Sales Manager, Monitor Labs Ltd., 2 Airfield Way, Christchurch, Dorset Dr Bernard M. Gibbs Senior Lecturer, Department of Fuel and Energy, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT Dr Nigel Gibson Senior Consultant, Room 3.12, E1 Building, AEA Technology, Culham, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 3DB Dr Richard Grant Application Engineer, Combustion Developments Ltd (CODEL), Station Building, Station Road, Bakewell, Derbyshire DE4 1GE Mr Richard Horne Sales Manager, Combustion Developments Ltd (CODEL), Station Building, Station Road, Bakewell, Derbyshire DE41GE Mr Simon Medhurst Environmental Quality Manager, CRE Group Ltd., Stoke Orchard, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire GL52 4RZ and Quality Officer, Source Testing Association Mr David P Miles Director, Environmental Evaluation Ltd., Lawton Square, Delph, Oldham OL35DT

10 x Contributors Dr Stephen Richardson Senior Consultant, AEA Technology, National Environmental Technology Centre, Culham, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 3DB Mr John Scawin (Recently retired from British Oxygen (Special Gases) Ltd), 51 Merland Rise, Tattenham Corner, Epsom KT18 5RN Mr John Turnbull Sales and Applications Manger for Stationary Emisions Monitoring, Signal Instruments Company Ltd., Standards House, Doman Road, Camberley, Surrey GU15 3DW Mr David S Walker (Recently retired from Regional Manager, Glasgow Office, AEA Technology), 98 Aitken Road, Hamilton, Lanarkshire ML3 7YL Mr Ian Watson Regional Sales Manager, Northern Britain and Europe, Land Combustion Ltd., Dronfield, Sheffield, South Yorkshire S18 6DJ Dr Paul T Williams Senior Lecturer, Department of Fuel and Energy, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT

11 Series editors' foreword Focus is now shifting from concern over the toxicological aspects of pollutant discharges and waste disposal to the larger issue espousing a transition to new resource use policies that: conserve natural resources and energy for long-term sustainable use; minimize ecological damage during the extraction of raw materials; minimize wastes during production and recycle as much as possible of the wastes produced; facilitate the re-incorporation of the product into natural systems at the end of its life cycle; use wastes from one production process as inputs (Le. raw materials) in some other production process (e.g. municipal sludge to agricultural production). There is a concomitant shift from merely preventing observable deleterious effects from potentially toxic materials to enhancing ecosystem health and condition, which will probably involve a major shift from a laboratory focus in toxicology to an ecosystem focus because of the difficulty of simulating some of the critical attributes in microcosms and mesocosms. The problem of interfacing two complex multivariate systems - one technological, the other ecological - will be best resolved by developing a process characteristic of the information age of integrative thinking and reasoning. Environmental problems transcend the capabilities of a single discipline, although many disciplines will have much to contribute. The series is a forum on the interface between technological systems and ecological systems with the recognition that both are part of human society's life support system. Some of the books in the series will be on methodology, particularly those methods suitable for generating information that will affect the decision making process. We also feel that policy and management, in addition to science and technology, have a role in the overall mix. All of the volumes in the series will have a single unifying theme - the intelligent use, without abuse, of environmental resources. Because the series is a forum, opposing views are welcome and desirable if kept within normal bounds of professional ethics. The Series will approach these objectives by publishing both single-

12 xii Series editors' foreword and multi-author books and edited volumes in all aspects of environmental science and engineering pertinent to understanding and managing the physical, chemical and biological environment as well as topics dealing with the political, economic, legal, and social considerations. The level of presentation will be advanced, the books being aimed primarily at a research/consultancy readership. J. Cairns, Jr R. M. Harrison

13 Preface Since the introduction of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 in the UK there has been rapid growth in the amount of monitoring of air pollutant emissions from industrial processes. Many industries which in the past did not have to measure the emissions from their chimneys now find themselves either installing unfamiliar and expensive equipment or paying contractors to make measurements on their behalf. Whilst in other countries, particularly the USA and Germany, standard methods of measurement had been established for some years, the UK found itself trying to implement the new legislation with very few standard methods or protocols. Although the situation is improving, there is still a shortage of information on the various methods of pollutant monitoring and their relative advantages and disadvantages. It is hoped that this volume will help all those involved - industry, the control authorities, consultants, instrument suppliers etc., to gain a broad overview of the topic. Readers wanting detailed instructions for particular methods will be disappointed - there is simply not room in a book of this size to go into that level of detail Hopefully, sufficient references have been given for those wanting further details to know where to find them. Emissions monitoring is far more than just choosing the right equipment or methods. There are many issues such as the nature of the emissions limits, the legal requirements, the collecting and processing of the data, quality assurance and control, calibration and accuracy, safety and the management of site work. We have attempted to cover all of these subjects. So, although I am based in a University, this is intended to be a practical rather than an academic book, firmly grounded in the real world. The immediate impetus for producing the book was the 3-day short course on Industrial Air Pollution Monitoring run at the University of Leeds since I am grateful for several of the lecturers agreeing to upgrade their notes into a chapter or part of a chapter and to those who have not been involved in the course but agreed to make contributions.

14 xiv Preface The origin explains the structure of the book - a relatively large number of fairly short chapters. It also explains any differences in the style and level of detail between different chapters. Details of companies who manufacture or distribute equipment for emissions monitoring are not incorporated here, but such information is available in a Directory of Emissions Monitoring produced biennnially in conjunction with our short course. Copies can be obtained from Miss J. Charlton, Short Course Manager, in the Editor's Department. Finally, my thanks to the members of our secretarial staff, Heather, Sheelagh and Julie who in in various ways have contributed towards the preparation of the manuscript. Andrew Clarke