Modern Oceanographic Science

Transcription

1 Modern Oceanographic Science What is oceanography? Oceanography as a science is broadly concerned with understanding the transport of seawater and its contents. There are numerous facets to this science, so it is further subdivided into a variety of different disciplines, which each have roots in a basic science. Physical Oceanography is concerned with aspects of fluid mechanics on a rapidly rotating spherical earth (so-called ``geophysical fluid dynamics''). Physical oceanographers are interested in the flow of water (tides and currents), of heat (warm and cold temperatures), and of salinity (the matter dissolved in seawater). Classical physics and mathematics (e.g., partial differential equations and force balances) are basic tools. Biological Oceanography is largely concerned with the free-floating microscopic life in the ocean. Biological oceanographers are concerned with production (i.e., the rates of conversion of inorganic nutrients into organic matter, and the reverse), and the fate of this organic matter. Primary production can be channel to upper trophic levels through foodwebs or transfer to the deep ocean as sinking particles. Biology is the basic tool for these investigations. Statistics is often important. Chemical Oceanography is concerned with the details of the dissolved content in the ocean, its fluxes through the ocean and its boundaries, and its chemical transformations. Ultimately, chemical oceanography aims to understand the biogeochemical cycles of nutrients (macronutrients and trace elements), as well as the concentration and large-scale distribution of chemical elements and their isotopes. Chemistry is the basic tool. In addition to these three major subgroups, there are also many related disciplines, e.g., fisheries oceanography, marine biology, coastal engineering, and geological oceanography (the study of bottom and boundaries of the ocean). Particular scientific issues e.g., biogeochemical processes, or carbon fluxes, can overlap into several different areas. In addition, there are often overlaps between oceanography and somewhat different disciplines (e.g., planetary dynamics, rotating fluid mechanics, paleoclimatology). The boundaries are therefore somewhat artificial, but still useful as a classification scheme. However, all of this can be rather confusing, and it also obscures the way in which ocean science actually works. How does science work? The idealized view of science: A scientist, using the scientific process to systematically acquire knowledge about the natural world. The work can be curiosity-driven, but may (or may not) be embedded in larger programs with specific goals.

2 This view is not wrong, but the old-fashioned vision of scientists as ``natural philosophers'', often with independent means of support, is not really relevant today. This is because of the way scientific investigations are carried out. The steps in a scientific investigation are: 1. Think of a problem or a question 2. Do some preliminary research (to see if answer is already known) 3. Refine the problem/question (figure out what the problem really is) 4. Write a proposal (and get it funded) 5. Gather data (fieldwork, fieldwork or numerical computations) 6. Analyze the data 7. Interpret the results 8. Communicate the findings: a. informally, through conversations b. semi-formally, through presentations ( conferences'') c. formally, through publications ( papers'') Almost every step (except possibly the first one) requires money, or at the very least, time - which is generally equivalent to money. In short, science works because there is money to support it. The cost of science What is money needed for, and how much money is needed? 1. People (salaries) Scientist/Professor: $40-$120/hour + benefits ($60k-$200k/year) Post doc/technicians: $20-$40/hour + benefits ($35k-$70k/year) Grad students: $20k/year, but this includes ``learning'', as well as ``work'' Undergrad students: $15k-$30k/year, often pro-rated for part of year only 2. Overhead (where you work) = cost of running buildings, administration (finance, janitors, legal), telephones, internet, library. It can be as much as the direct salary cost, although typically ~ 50% of salary costs. 3. Equipment (to make and analyze measurements) A typical piece of laboratory or field equipment can cost anywhere from $1k-$100k or more. Many basic tools of science have a cost of around $30k. A typical'' laboratory might contain $250-$1000k or more in equipment, amortized over 5 or 10 years. Computers are also needed on everyone's desk. Basically, if you aren't using a computer, you probably aren't doing science these days. 4. Field Expenses (fieldwork needed to make measurements)

3 Travel (to & from sampling sites) - Airfare/transport ($100 to $5000 per person) - Food ($50/day) - Lodging ($100/day) Shiptime (includes transit time to/from area of interest) - Trailerable vessel - $1k/day - Small vessel (fishing boat), day use only - $2k-4k/day - Medium research vessel, perhaps 24 hour ops - $7k-10k/day - Large research vessel - $20k/day - Icebreakers - $30k-50k/day - Aircraft, hovercraft - $1k/hour Note that a typical program might require 2-3 weeks of shiptime per year. 5. Sample analysis (for things not done in your lab) On the order of $20/sample/thing being analyzed. You may need hundreds of these for any one cruise. 6. Collaboration (conferences, visits) To go away for a 1 week conference out-of-town is ~ $3k/person 7. Publication (communication of results) Page charges'' around $2k/paper, typically a few a year. THE BOTTOM LINE: Very typically, a small scientific lab with a scientist, a technician, and a couple of post-docs or students will then ``cost'' $300k/ year, with additional shiptime costs of anywhere from $14k-$70k/day. Where does the money come from? The short answer is - from wherever you can find it. Scientists in different jobs tend to have different resources available to them. 1. Private Sector Almost exclusively `consulting companies', in the private sector money is raised by solving problems for clients who can afford this kind of cost. This usually occurs only when significantly larger costs or profits are envisaged (for a private sector funding agent), or for large infrastructure programs funded by the government. 2. Government

4 Government scientists and technicians are full-time employees and usually paid a salary accordingly, but research funding is allocated out of internal department funds under various procedures. Government science is often driven by particular policy goals which may or may not align with the scientists curiosity-driven interests. There is an expectation that government scientists will spend a significant fraction of his/her time on these policy-driven goals, and these goals can be changed, sometimes abruptly. In some cases, government scientists can also raise money from outside sources to pursue curiosity-driven research. These outside sources can be other branches or levels of government (with particular policy goals), or basic research funding agencies. However, the latter is often aimed more at academic (university) researchers, so creative arrangements are required. A standard method is to hold and `adjunct' position with a local university, so that funding flows through the university. Government scientists with outside funding may have a difficult relationship with managers who would prefer that they work on policy issues. 3. Academia In academia, there is a mix of both worlds. An academic scientist often has his/her salary partly or totally covered (so-called ``hard money'', this often covers ``teaching'' requirements). In the US, there also exist private non-profit research institutions in which salaries must be raised by writing proposals to outside funding organizations (so-called ``soft money''). What kinds of funding organizations are there? 1. Government: NSERC The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada is the main funding agency in Canada, and it can be used to provide money for students, post-docs, equipment, shiptime, and other costs. NSERC is really the only source of money for BASIC curiosity-driven research. In recent years, NSERC (which is located in the Dept. of Industry in the federal government) has vigorously tried to steer research towards areas of commercial interest by promoting `industry collaboration' with various levels of matching funds required. CFI The Canada Foundation for Innovation is the main conduit for large infrastructure (buildings, renovations, etc.), providing 40% of funds which must be matched by other amounts from other levels of government or private industry.

5 2. Universities Although universities provide little research funding, they are the source of faculty salaries, as well as salaries for (some) technical support, and also `startup funds' for new hires. 3. Government Agencies with specific needs Sometimes small amounts of money are available from departments like DFO (Dept. of Fisheries and Oceans) or EC (Environment Canada). In the US, the main funding agencies for oceanography are NSF (National Science Foundation), ONR (Office of Naval Research, which traditionally provided a great deal of support for basic research), NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), NASA... and many others. 4. Industry Mostly these are somewhat equivalent to 'consulting' projects, related to environmental impact assessments for particular projects. These can be for a substantial amount of money, but in return they tend to want very specific deliverables. 5. Private Foundations Essentially philanthropic organizations, that are pursuing a variety of goals, may sometimes provide sources of funding.