Edited by. Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada. Authors. Richard L. Johnson Michael C. Kavanaugh Jennifer L. Triplett Kingston Julie Konzuk

Transcription

1 Chlorinated Solvent Source Zone Remediation Edited by Bernard H. Kueper Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada Hans F. Stroo Stroo Consulting LLC, Ashland, OR, USA Catherine M. Vogel Noblis Inc., Atlanta, GA, USA C. Herb Ward Rice University, Houston, TX, USA Authors Michael D. Annable Robert C. Borden Michael C. Brooks Richard A. Brown Natalie L. Capiro Wilson S. Clayton Michelle Crimi Kathy L. Davies Rula A. Deeb Ronald W. Falta Jason I. Gerhard Mark Harkness Kirk Hatfield Elisabeth L. Hawley James W. Jawitz Paul C. Johnson Richard L. Johnson Michael C. Kavanaugh Jennifer L. Triplett Kingston Julie Konzuk Bernard H. Kueper Herbert Levine Gregory V. Lowry David W. Major Michael C. Marley James W. Mercer Kevin G. Mumford Charles J. Newell Jennifer L. Nyman Robert H. O'Laskey Kurt D. Pennell P. Suresh C. Rao Alicia J. Shepard Robert L. Siegrist Brent E. Sleep Hans F. Eric J. Stroo Suchomel Neil R. Thomson Paul G. Tratnyek Catherine M. Vogel Douglas I. Walker Michael R. West C. Herb Ward Dean F. John T. Williamson Wilson A. Lynn Wood ^ Springer

2 CHAPTER 1 SOURCE ZONE REMEDIATION: THE STATE OF THE PRACTICE Introduction Chlorinated Solvent Source Zones Evolution of Understanding Life Cycle of a Chlorinated Solvent Source Zone Historical Remediation Trends Source Containment State of the Practice The Source Zone Remediation Challenge (Chapter 2) DNAPL Source Zone Characterization and Delineation (Chapter 3) Advanced Diagnostic Tools (Chapter 4) Modeling Source Zone Remediation (Chapter 5) Modeling Plume Response to Source Treatment (Chapter 6) Flux-Based Site Assessment and Management (Chapter 7) Hydraulic Displacement of Dense Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (Chapter 8) In Situ Chemical Oxidation (Chapter 9) In Situ Chemical Reduction for Source Remediation (Chapter 10) Surfactant and Cosolvent Rushing (Chapter 11) In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Ethene Source Zones (Chapter 12) Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvent Source Zones (Chapter 13) In Situ Thermal Treatment of Chlorinated Solvent Source Zones (Chapter 14) Combined Remedies (Chapter 15) Cost Analyses for Remedial Options (Chapter 16) Groundwater Remediation, Management, and the Use of Alternative Endpoints at Highly Complex Sites (Chapter 17) Future Directions and Research Needs for Source Zone Remediation (Chapter 18) Summary 24 References 25 CHAPTER 2 THE SOURCE ZONE REMEDIATION CHALLENGE Introduction Source Management Options 31 xxvii

3 xxviii 2.3 Performance Prediction Limitations Source Characterization and Monitoring Overview of a DNAPL Site Life Cycle of a DNAPL Site Investigation and Remedy Characterization and Monitoring Challenges Conventional Methods Innovative Methods Remediation Technologies Hydraulic Displacement In Situ Chemical Oxidation In Situ Chemical Reduction Surfactant and Cosolvent Flushing In Situ Bioremediation Natural Attenuation of Sources In Situ Thermal Treatment Source Remediation Issues DNAPL Remediation Effectiveness Technology Applicability Contaminant Distribution Benefits of Source Depletion Source Depletion and Mass Discharge Source Depletion and Plume Behavior Risks of Implementing Source Depletion Technologies Estimating Impacts of Source Depletion on Life Cycle Costs Summary and Future Needs 55 References 56 CHAPTER 3 DNAPL SOURCE ZONE CHARACTERIZATION AND DELINEATION Introduction Assessing DNAPL Presence Visual Observation (Line of Evidence A) Soil Concentration Site Use/Site History (Line of Evidence D) Vapor Concentrations (Line of Evidence E) Hydrophobic Dye Testing (Line of Evidence F) Groundwater Concentrations (Line of Evidence G) Assessing the Presence of Diffused Mass Source Zone Delineation Mass Estimates Calculation Procedures for Estimating Mass 79

4 xxix 3.6 Summary 81 References 82 CHAPTER 4 ADVANCED DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS Introduction What Are Diagnostic Tools? Why Are Diagnostic Tools Needed? Overview of Tools Discussed in This Chapter Utility of Diagnostic Tools for Optimizing Remedial Strategies Value Added Through Application of Diagnostic Tools Value of Information Analysis Basis for Selection of Diagnostic Tools Depth Discrete Sampling Multilevel Monitoring Systems Rock Matrix Characterization Mass Flux/Mass Discharge Measurement Tools Uses Description of Techniques Advantages/Disadvantages Status and Attributes for Selection Compound-Specific Isotope Analysis Description Regulatory Acceptance Attributes for Selection Molecular Biological Tools Overview Regulatory Acceptance Attributes for Selection Value of Information Analysis Summary Summary of Diagnostic Tools Summary of Attributes for Selection Recommendations for Use 107 References 108 CHAPTER 5 MODELING SOURCE ZONE REMEDIATION Introduction Analytical Versus Numerical Models 115

5 xxx 5.3 The Components of a Remediation Model The Modeling Process Examples Numerical Simulation of DNAPL Remediation in Unconsolidated Media Using Chemical Oxidation Application of In Situ Chemical Oxidation for DNAPL Remediation in Fractured Rock Application of Steam Hushing for DNAPL Remediation Summary 140 References 140 CHAPTER 6 MODELING PLUME RESPONSES TO SOURCE TREATMENT Introduction Key Issues to Consider in Modeling Plume Responses Modeling Limitations Available Models REMChlor Description Illustrative Examples of REMChlor Simulations Comparing Modeling Source and Plume Remediation Effects 160 a Permeable Reactive Barrier Modeling Remediation of a High-Strength Persistent Source Combining Source and Plume Remediation Modeling Plume Responses at Challenging Sites Layered Sand-Clay Sequences Fractured Bedrock Sites Conclusions 181 References 182 CHAPTER 7 FLUX-BASED SITE ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT Introduction Mass Discharge and Mass Flux as Measures in Site Characterization and Management Fundamental Background Relationship of Mass Depletion and Mass Discharge and Flux Site Mass Balance Considerations Mass Discharge and Flux During Plume Evolution Estimating Source Strength Functions Remedial Considerations 197

6 xxxi 7.3 Methods for Mass Discharge and Mass Flux Measurement Transect Method Passive Flux Meters Integral Pump Tests Fort Lewis DNAPL Case Study for Mass Flux Evaluation Remedial Design Considerations Mass Balance Considerations Borden Coal Tar Emplacement Experiment Case Study for Mass Flux Evaluation Source Strength Predictions Source Mass Estimation Borden Coal Tar Plume Behavior Conclusions 213 References 214 CHAPTER 8 HYDRAULIC DISPLACEMENT OF DENSE NONAQUEOUS PHASE LIQUIDS Introduction Screening Calculations Fundamentals of Multiphase Flow Height of DNAPL Pools Volume of DNAPL in a Pool DNAPL Saturation Corresponding to Measured Soil Concentration Hydraulic Gradient Required to Mobilize Pooled DNAPL State of the Practice Evaluation and Implementation Process Three-Dimensional Numerical Modeling of Hydraulic Displacement Case Histories Chlorinated Solvent Hydraulic Displacement Remedy Design Creosote DNAPL Hydraulic Displacement Performance Summary 249 References 250 CHAPTER 9 IN SITU CHEMICAL OXIDATION Technology Description Overview of ISCO Historical Evolution of ISCO Retrospective Analysis of ISCO Performance and Costs ISCO System Selection, Design, and Implementation 257

7 xxxii 9.2 Key Concepts of ISCO and DNAPL Source Zones Chemically Reactive Zones and Mass Transfer Oxidant Properties Oxidant Reactions in the Subsurface Current Practices for DNAPL Source Zone Treatment using ISCO Remedial Design Issues and Approaches DNAPL Source Zones and Viability of ISCO Remedial Design Issues Remedial Design and Implementation Project Monitoring and System Optimization Program Components and Elements Monitoring Phases Status and Areas for Advancements Status Areas for Advancement 292 References 294 CHAPTER 10 IN SITU CHEMICAL REDUCTION FOR SOURCE REMEDIATION Introduction Technology Development State of the Practice Technical Background Chlorinated Solvent Degradation Under Reducing Conditions Reductants Contributing to ISCR Treatment of Source Zones Strategies for Delivery Combined Remedies Implementation Site Delineation and Characterization Technology Assessment and Selection Technology Design and Implementation Case Studies Synthesis and Recommendations Advantages and Limitations: Lessons Learned Future Prospects and Needs Near-Term Prospects Without Additional Research Longer-Term Research Needs 337 References 338

8 xxxiii CHAPTER 11 SURFACTANT AND COSOLVENT FLUSHING Introduction Surfactants Cosolvents Surfactant and Cosolvent Recovery Mechanisms Enhanced Solubility (Solubilization) NAPL Displacement ("Mobilization") Surfactant Flushing Case Studies Hill Air Force Base Operable Unit Bachman Road Site, Oscoda, Michigan Surfactant Flushing Potential and Limitations Cosolvent Flushing Case Studies Sages Dry Cleaner Site Cosolvent Flushing Implementation and Limitations Combined Remediation Strategies for In Situ Flushing Summary and Conclusions 385 References 386 CHAPTER 12 IN SITU BIOREMEDIATION OF CHLORINATED ETHENE SOURCE ZONES Introduction Technology Description Technical Basis Enhanced Dissolution and Source Removal During ISB Microbiology of Chlorinated Ethene Biodegradation Practical Implications Technical Challenges Toxicity ph Substrate Delivery to the Contaminant Advantages and Limitations Advantages Limitations Implementation Options Primary or Polishing Technology Active or Passive Treatment Mass Removal or Source Containment Biostimulation or Bioaugmentation Combining ISB with Other Technologies 412

9 xxxiv 12.6 Design Considerations Site-Specific Challenges Amendment Alternatives Electron Donor Requirements Injection and Delivery Remedial Objectives Predicting Performance Modeling ISB at a Field Scale Operations and Monitoring Issues Operating and Optimizing ISB Systems Monitoring ISB Systems Case Studies Rice University Experimental Controlled Release System: Biostimulation and Bioaugmentation Dover AFB: Bioaugmentation and Lactate Recirculation Fort Lewis East Gate Disposal Yard: Whey Injections Tarheel Army Missile Plant, North Carolina: Edible Oil Injection Lessons Learned Future Developments Improved Understanding and Treatment of Low-Permeability Regions Improving Delivery to DNAPL Accumulations ISB at Fractured Rock Sites Long-Term Performance Predictions and Improvements 443 References 444 CHAPTER 13 NATURAL ATTENUATION OF CHLORINATED SOLVENT SOURCE ZONES Introduction MNA as a Source Zone Remedy Factors Affecting Applicability Life Cycle of Chlorinated Solvent Sources Key Attenuation Processes Vaporization and Volatilization DNAPL Dissolution Desorption Matrix Diffusion Abiotic Degradation Biotic Degradation 477

10 xxxv 13.3 Remedial Goals and Metrics for Source Zone MNA Reducing Source Zone Concentrations and Mass Discharge Effect on Source Longevity Potential for Attaining MCLs Costs Sustainability and Intangible Goals State of the Practice Regulatory Practices Changing Source Paradigms and Impacts on Management Source Zone MNA Evaluation Techniques Options for Implementation Modeling Source Zone Monitored Natural Attenuation Simple Data Extrapolation Modeling Analytical Models Numerical Models Operations, Monitoring and Optimization Observational Approach and Comparison to Predictions Case Studies Survey of Source Zone MNA Applications Hypothetical Case Study Midwest Manufacturing Facility Case Study Summary Processes Methods Applications 502 References 502 CHAPTER 14 IN SITU THERMAL TREATMENT OF CHLORINATED SOLVENT SOURCE ZONES Introduction Fundamental Mechanisms Vapor Formation Partitioning Fluid Properties Descriptions of Thermal Technologies Steam-Enhanced Extraction Thermal Conductive Heating Electrical Resistance Heating Large-Diameter Auger Mixing with Steam Injection Radio Frequency Heating 532

11 xxxvi 14.4 Synthesis of Available Data Data Summary Lessons Learned Recommendations for Technology Selection, Application and Performance Assessment Case Studies NAS Alameda Point, California Fort Lewis, Washington Former Naval Air Warfare Center, Trenton, New Jersey Summary 553 References 554 CHAPTER 15 COMBINED REMEDIES Introduction Evolution of Combined Remedies Reasons to Use Combined Remedies Challenges in Combining Technologies General Types of Combined Remedies Strategies for Combining Remedial Technologies Sequential Technology Combinations Concurrent Technology Combinations Prior Applications of Selected Technology Combinations ISCO-ISB Sequential Combination Surfactant/Cosolvent-ISCO Combinations ISCR-ISB Combinations ISCR-ISCO Combinations In Situ Thermal Treatment: ISCO/ISCR/ISB Combinations Surfactant-ISB Combinations Contingent Combined Remedies Summary 590 References 592 CHAPTER 16 COST ANALYSES FOR REMEDIAL OPTIONS Introduction Cost Analysis Process Template Site Descriptions Cost Categories and Components Remediation Options Evaluated Case 1: Permeable Source Area Case 2: Low Permeability Source Area 611

12 xxxvii 16.4 Cost Analyses Case 1: Permeable Source Area Case 2: Low Permeability Source Area Summary 624 References 625 CHAPTER 17 GROUNDWATER REMEDIATION AND THE USE OF ALTERNATIVE ENDPOINTS AT HIGHLY COMPLEX SITES Introduction Overview of Remedial Approaches at Complex Sites Active Groundwater Remediation Description Case Studies: Active Remediation Passive Groundwater Remediation Description Case Study: Passive Remediation Long Term Management Description Case Studies: Long Term Management Alternative Endpoints Identification of ARARs Case Studies: Identification of ARARs Description of ARAR Waivers Case Studies: ARAR Waivers Description of Alternate Concentration Limits Case Studies: ACLs Summary and Conclusions 648 References 648 CHAPTER 18 FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND RESEARCH NEEDS FOR SOURCE ZONE REMEDIATION Introduction Remediation Research in Context Research Needs for Site Characterization Source Zone Delineation and Mass Estimation Source Zone Architecture and Depletion Increased Resolution and Fine-Scale Mapping 658

13 xxxviii 18.4 Research Needs for Remediation Long-Term Impacts of Source Zone Remediation Remedial Fluid Delivery Combined Remedies Diagnostic and Performance Assessment Tools Improved Containment and Ex Situ Treatment Economic Analyses Technology Performance Models Impacts of Management Strategies Challenging Site Conditions Technology Transfer Needs Summary 664 References 666 APPENDIX A: LIST OF ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS 669 APPENDIX B: UNIT CONVERSION TABLE 675 APPENDIX C: GLOSSARY 677 INDEX 703