Evaluation and Protection of the Tomstown Aquifer in Western Cumberland County, PA

Transcription

1 Evaluation and Protection of the Tomstown Aquifer in Western Cumberland County, PA Brianne E. Campbell Shippensburg University M.S. Practical Examination

2 Table of Contents: 1.0 Introduction Literature Review Impacts of Land Uses on Water Resources Karst Landscapes Water Resources Management Study Area Methods Evaluation of the Tomstown Aquifer Tomstown Aquifer Recharge Map Tomstown Aquifer Protection Plan Results and Discussion Evalulation of the Tomsown Aquifer Recharge Area of Tomstown Aquifer Tomstown Aquifer Protection Plan Conclusions 25 Literature Cited

3 1.0 Introduction: The Tomstown aquifer is a large water resource in south-central, Pennsylvania and is used for domestic, industrial, and agricultural uses (Lindsey, 2005). The aquifer is located in Cumberland, York, Franklin, and Adams counties, PA (Lindsey, 2005). The aquifer is comprised primarily of the carbonate rock dolomite (Berg, 1980) and is vulnerable to contamination from the various land uses in the area. The aquifer is also located in a karst landscape. Karst describes a landscape that contains carbonate bedrock and defined karst features such as sinkholes, springs, and sinking streams (White, 1988). The dissolution of the bedrock is the primary process that creates a karst landscape (USGS, 2012). Water resources (such as groundwater) are vulnerable to contamination in karst landscapes because water travels rapidly through the subsurface through solutionally enlarged fractures and conduits (White, 2002). The rapid movement of the water prevents contaminates from being filtered out of the karst systems (Kingsbury, 2008). Karst systems are typically complex and difficult to map, which makes monitoring groundwater in karst systems difficult (White, 1988). The Tomstown aquifer is located within a karst landscape and it is essential that the aquifer and its recharge area are protected from contaminates. The land use in the area may play a larger role in the quality of aquifer rather than the geology of the area. The Tomstown aquifer is covered with a mantle of colluvium (Linsdey, 2005) and the colluvium may be decreasing the amount of contaminants entering the aquifer. Very little research has been conducted on the quality of the Tomstown aquifer. Community outreach and education, watershed monitoring, and zoning vulnerable areas in the aquifer and its 2

4 recharge area as special protection areas are several methods that could be used to protect the quality of the Tomstown aquifer (EPA 1995; Hufschmidt, 1969). The purpose of the research was to characterize the portion of the Tomstown aquifer located in Cumberland County, PA and to create a protection/monitoring plan for that portion of the aquifer. The objectives of the research were to: 1. Determine the recharge area of the Tomstown aquifer. 2. Create maps showing the yields of wells in the Tomstown aquifer. 3. Determine if wells in the aquifer may be vulnerable to contamination. 4. To create a protection plan for the Tomstown aquifer and its recharge area. 2.0 Literature Review 2.1 Impacts of Land Uses on Water Resources: Water resources can be negatively impacted from different types of land uses. Agricultural and urbanized areas commonly decrease the quality of water resources in the United States (EPA, 1998). Many different types of contaminates can enter a water resource from both of these land uses (Younger, 2009) Agricultural practices have the ability to decrease the quality resources in an area if best management practices (BMPs) are not incorporated in rural areas (Hortsman, 2014). Agricultural chemicals, fecal coliforms, and nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates are examples of contaminates from agricultural practices that can decrease the quality of water resources and aquatic ecosystems in an area (EPA 1998; Younger, 2009). Excess nutrients can cause algal blooms and fecal coliforms from livestock manure can negatively impact human health (Hortsman, 2014). Algal blooms can cause fish kills and make 3

5 people ill if cyanobacteria is present in the algal bloom. Pathogenic fecal coliforms can also make people ill of they are ingested (Hortsman, 2014). Pesticides such as atrazine can also negatively impact human health because they can be carcinogenic (EPA, 1998; Younger, 2009). Best management practices can be used to help decrease the amount of nutrients, fecal coliforms, and agricultural chemicals in water resources. Farmers can be educated on how much manure, fertilizers, and pesticides they should place on their fields and the best time to apply them on their fields (EPA, 1998). As stated before, urbanized areas also have the potential to contaminate important water resources (Younger, 2009). Fecal coliforms from waste water treatment plants, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from impervious surfaces and leaking underground storage tanks, and pesticides are contaminants that can be found in water resources in urbanized areas (Younger, 2009; EPA, 1998). Decreasing the amount of impervious surface and adding structures such as rain gardens in urbanized areas can help reduce the amount of contaminants in water resources in urbanized areas. 2.2 Karst landscapes and aquifers: Karst is defined as a landscape that is underlain with carbonate rocks such as limestone or dolomite (White, 1988). The dissolution of bedrock is the primary process that creates karst landscapes and karst features such as springs, sinkholes, caves, and sinking streams. Approximately 20% of the land surface in the United States is categorized as karst (Figure 1) and Mammoth Cave in Kentucky and the springs in Florida are some of the largest and most famous karst areas in the United States (USGS, 2012). There is also a large amount of karst located in south-central, Pennsylvania (Figure 1). 4

6 Figure 1: Map showing all of the karst areas in the United States (Epstein et al., 2002). Karst landscapes typically contain very productive aquifers. Approximately 40% of the groundwater used for drinking water in the United States comes from karst aquifers (USGS, 2012). The unique hydrology and geology of the karst landscapes are what makes karst aquifers very productive (White, 1988). Karst landscapes contain dissolution generated conduits that permit the rapid flow of groundwater, often turbulent in flow (White, 2002). Water enters the conduit systems through karst features such as sinkholes and sinking streams during storm events and the water in the system interconnects with groundwater stored in fractures and in granular permeability of bedrock (White, 2002). 5

7 Groundwater is easily extracted from areas of the aquifer that contain a large number of conduits and/or solutionally enlarged fractures (Bakalowski, 2005; White 1988). Wells that are drilled into conduits or fractures can provide large quantities of water. The high permeability of the conduits and fractures produce good well yields (White, 1988). Groundwater is very difficult to extract in areas of a karst aquifer where there are very little or no conduits present (Bakalowski, 2005). Very little water can be drawn from these areas because most carbonate rocks have a very small primary permeability. Wells that are drilled into these areas typically have very small yields (White, 1988). Water budgets, tracer studies, hydrograph analysis, and chemograph analysis can be used to characterize a karst aquifer (White, 2002). It is very important to characterize a karst aquifer because they are very susceptible to contamination. Karst aquifers are poor at filtering out pollutants because water moves quickly through the conduit systems (Kingsbury, 2008). Karst aquifers are very susceptible to contamination because pollutants can enter the aquifer quickly (Thomas and Beckford, 1982). 2.3 Water Resources Management: Protecting the quality and quantity of water resources is vital because water is essential for human life, for agriculture, for industrial production, and for recreation and transportation (Dzurik, 2003). Water resources management and planning is used to monitor both the quality and quantity of vital water resources (Hufschmidt, 1969). Zoning areas that contain vital water resources as Special Protection Areas (SPAs) can be an effective way to protect water resources. Zoning regulations in SPAs are strict and multiple 6

8 organizations collaborate with one another to ensure that valuable natural resources are not severely degraded from human activities (Montgomery County, Maryland SPA Plan, 2012). The Planning board, the Department of Permitting Services and the Department of Environmental Protection typically enforce SPA rules and regulations (Montgomery County, Maryland, SPA Plan, 2012). Land-disturbing activities on publicly-owned property and landdisturbing activities that require a new amendment to a development plan, diagrammatic plan, schematic development plan, project plan, special exception, preliminary plan for a subdivision, or a site plan are subject to SPA regulations and guidelines (Montgomery County SPA Plan, 2012). The regulations in SPAs are stringent to ensure that water resources are not being severely degraded by human activities (Hufschmidt, 1969). Stakeholder involvement can be an effective way to manage water resources. The general public and government agencies can collaborate with one another to monitor and manage water resources in an areas (EPA, 1995). Water resources can be managed and monitored more efficiently if the general public, the local government, and regulatory agencies work together because it can be difficult for one group of people to manage all of the water resources in an areas (EPA, 1995; Hufschmidt, 1969). 7

9 3.0 Study Area: The Tomstown formation is a massive dolomite formation with thin shaly interbeds and has an estimated thickness of 200ft (Lindsey, 2005). The formation is located primarily in Cumberland County, with Franklin, Adams, and York counties (Figure 2). The geologic age of the formation is Cambrian and it overlies the Antietam formation sandstone and underlies the Waynesboro formation (Stose, 1906) (Figure 3). The focus of this paper is the portion of the Tomstown formation that is located in Cumberland County, PA. Figure 2: Map showing the location of the Tomstown formation in Cumberland, Franklin, Adams, and York counties, Pennsylvania. 8

10 Tomstown Formation Waynesboro Formation Antietam Formation Figure 3: Map showing the geology of Cumberland County, PA. The Tomstown formation is located in the southern portion of the county. The map was created in ArcGIS

11 The Tomstown formation is a karst aquifer that contains a large volume of groundwater (Lindsey, 2005). The Tomstown aquifer is karst because dolomite is a carbonate bedrock and areas that contain dolomite become karst from the dissolution of the bedrock. As stated before, karst landscapes contain features such as sinkholes, conduits, and solutionally enlarged fractures that allow water to move quickly through the subsurface (White, 1988). The Tomstown formation contains primarily sinkholes, closed depressions, and conduits (Lindsey, 2005). The Tomstown aquifer is a confined aquifer that is covered in with a mantle of colluvium (Becher and Root, 1981). The source of the colluvium is South Mountain which is predominantly underlain with metamorphic rock (quartzite), which is resistant to weathering and erosion (Lindsey, 2005). The mantle of colluvium is located at the base of South Mountain and was created from erosion and mass wasting processes. Landslides from upslope formations have been deposited over the Tomstown formation. (Lindsey, 2005). The colluvium from the upslope fills the voids/conduits in the Tomstown formation. The composition of the colluvium includes quartz sand, quartzite boulders, and clays (Becher and Root, 1981; Lindsey, 2005). Colluvium has the ability to store large quantities of water and has the ability to filter out pollutants (Younger, 2009). The transmissivity of the Tomstown aquifer is approximately 20,000ft 2 /day and the hydraulic conductivity is approximately 100ft/day (Lindsey, 2005). The colluvium filled conduits in the formation make the flow system of the aquifer diffuse. Diffuse flow systems are less likely to become contaminated than conduit flow systems because the water flows gradually through the subsurface rather than rapidly (Kingsbury, 2009). If the voids in the formation were not plugged with colluvium, the Tomstown aquifer would be a conduit flow system. 10

12 The groundwater in the aquifer is used for agricultural, industrial, commercial, and domestic uses (Lindsey, 2005). The land uses in the area that contains the Tomstown aquifer includes agricultural, forested, and urbanized. A large percentage of the land in the area is dedicated to agriculture (Figure 4). There are also a large amount of streams that flow through the area that contains the Tomstown aquifer. Mountain Creek, Old Town Run, and Spruce Run are several of the streams that flow through the area. The different types of land uses in the area may be negatively impacting the quality of the Tomstown aquifer and the streams that flow through the area. Cumberland Valley South Mountain Figure 4: Aerial imagery showing the land use in the area that contains the Tomstown formation and aquifer. A majority of the land in the area is used for agricultural practices. 11

13 4.0 Methods: 4.1 Evaluation of the Tomstown Aquifer: Maps were created in ArcGIS to evaluate the Tomstown aquifer. A contour map showing the well yields of Cumberland County, PA was created to determine what areas of Cumberland County had the highest well yields. A well yield point shapefile was created so that the contour map could be created. The point shapefile was created from the PAGWIS dataset that was provided for this research project (PAGWIS, 2014). The dataset was edited first to eliminate duplicate data points. After the shapefile was created, the Create TIN tool in ArcGIS was used to create a raster of the well yields in Cumberland County. The Contour tool was then used to convert the raster into contour map. The PA Bedrock Geology dataset was downloaded from PASDA and then added to the contour map to help determine if the Tomstown formation had the greatest well yields. The Identify tool was used to determine the yield of wells in different geological formations. The well yields shapefile was not included in the final map because it made the map look too cluttered. The attribute table of the shapefile was used to find information about the wells. A well yield map was created specifically for the Tomstown formation. The map was created by clipping the well yields shapefile to the Tomstown formation polygon. Streams where added to the map by downloading the Historic Streams dataset from PASDA. The streams where added to the map to show the flow of water from the recharge area. Aerial imagery was added to the map so that the different types of land uses above the Tomstown aquifer. 12

14 4.2 Tomstown Aquifer Recharge Map: The Tomstown Aquifer Recharge map was also created in ArcGIS The map was created by inserting the Cumberland County portion of the Tomstown formation polygon and the Cumberland County polygon into ArcMap. A topographic base map was also added into ArcMap to help define the recharge area of the aquifer. The topography of the landscape helped determine how water would flow off of South Mountain and into the Tomstown aquifer. The recharge area was digitized by hand and the area of the recharge area was calculated by using the Calculate Geometry tool in ArcMap. A water table map could have been created if more data would have been provided in the Pennsylvania Groundwater Information Systems (PAGWIS) data set that was provided for this research (PAGWIS, 2014). If the elevation of the wells and the depth of water in the wells had been included in the data set, a water table map could have been created. The depth of the water is subtracted from the elevation of the well to obtain a value for the total head and total head values are used to determine the flow of groundwater in an aquifer (Fetter, 1998). 4.3 Tomstown Aquifer Protection Plan: The Tomstown Aquifer Protection Plan was created by using and the Montgomery County, MD Special Protection Area (SPA) Plan and the Wisconsin Wellhead Protection Plan as guides. The goals for the plan are to protect both the Tomstown aquifer and the recharge area of the aquifer and to educate the general public about the importance of protecting these areas. The protection plan includes a several different programs. A map was created in ArcGIS to show what counties contain the Tomstown aquifer. 13

15 5.0 Results and Discussion: 5.1 Evaluation of the Tomstown Aquifer: The Tomstown formation is a vital water resource in south-central, Pennsylvania and is used for agricultural, industrial, and domestic uses. The Tomstown formation is productive because of the colluvium mantle at the base of South Mountain. The colluvium mantle is able to store large quantities of groundwater and is able to filter out pollunatns (Lindsey, 2005). The Tomstown formation contains approximately 259 wells that have yields that range from 0 to 890 gpm (Figure 5). The areas of the formation that have the largest well yields most likely have thick colluvium deposits. This indicates that the areas of the aquifer that have that highest well yields have the thickest colluvium deposits. The most productive well in the formation withdrawals 890 gpm which is approximately 1.28x10 6 gal/day. The wells that have smaller well yields also produce fairly large quantities of water. For example, there is a well in the Tomstown formation that yields 60 gpm which is equal 86,400 gal/day. The large quantities of groundwater that can be withdrawn from aquifer indicates that it is an important water resource in Cumberland County and that the colluvium is efficient at storing large quantities of water. Further research should be conducted to determine the changes in thickness of the colluvium mantle. The colluvium is an important part of the hydrogeology of this area, but the exact depth and characteristics of it are unknown (Lindsey, 2005). Even though the Tomstown aquifer is productive, it may not be the most productive aquifer in Cumberland County. For example, there are wells in the Rockdale Run and Elbrook formations that have higher well yields than the wells drilled into the Tomstown formation (Figure 6). For example, there is a well in the Rockdale formation that has a well yield of 1500 gpm which equals approximately 1.29x10 8 gal/day. This yield is significantly larger than the 14

16 largest yield from the Tomstown aquifer (1.28x10 6 gal/day). The water from the Rockdale formation may not be as potable as the water from the Tomstown formation however. The Rockdale formation is comprised of carbonate bedrock and is located in a karst landscape (Berg et al. 1980). The conduits and solutionally enlarged fractures in the Rocksdale formation are not plugged up with colluvium like the Tomstown formation. This indicates that the Rocksdale formation is most likely a conduit flow systems rather than a diffuse flow system. Groundwater flows rapidly through the subsurface in a conduit flow system and pollutants are not filtered out very well in this type of system (Kingsbury, 2008). The well that has a 1500 gpm well yield is located in an urbanized area and human activities in the urbanized area may be decreasing the quality of the groundwater. The Tomstown aquifer most likely has better water quality because it is a diffuse flow system. Karst aquifers with diffuse flow systems are less likely to become contaminated because groundwater flows gradually through the subsurface (Kingsbury, 2008). The colluvium in the conduits of the Tomstown formation allow the groundwater to flow gradually through the subsurface. The colluvium also filters pollutants that have entered the aquifer. Even though the Tomstown formation is a diffuse flow system, pollutants from various land uses still have the ability to decrease the water in the aquifer. A large percentage of the land above the Tomstown aquifer is agricultural and there are several different types of pollutants that can enter the aquifer from these agricultural areas. Fecal coliforms from manure spreading, pesticides, and nutrients are several pollutants that have been found in groundwater from agricultural practices (EPA, 1988). Shallow wells that have been drilled into the Tomstown formation are more likely to become contaminated than the deep wells in the formation. 15

17 Further research should be conducted to determine what aquifer is the most productive in Cumberland County. The Tomstown aquifer may be the most productive aquifer in the county, but more research should be done to determine whether or not that is true. More research should also be conducted to determine which aquifer in Cumberland County has the best water quality and if different land uses are negatively impacting the quality of the aquifers. Future research could also be conducted to determine if deeper wells in the county have better water quality than shallow wells. Figure 5: Map showing the yield of wells that have been drilled into the Tomstown aquifer. 16

18 Figure 6: Contour map showing the yield of wells in Cumberland County, PA. The map also shows the location of the Tomstown, Rockdale Run, and Elbrook formations. 17

19 5.2 Recharge Area of Tomstown Aquifer: The recharge area of the Tomstown aquifer is approximately mi 2 and is located on South Mountain (Figure 7). The land use in the recharge area is primarily forested and the water that flows through the area is most likely pristine. Based on the topography of landscape, when water falls in the recharge area on South Mountain it most likely flows into the Tomstown aquifer and then eventually discharges into the Cumberland Valley. Figure 7: Map showing the locations of the Tomstown Formation and its recharge area. 18

20 Research should be conducted to determine the pathways of water from the recharge zone to the discharge areas in the Cumberland County and to evaluate the Tomstown aquifer. The aquifer can be evaluated by mapping all spring discharges, sinking streams, and other recharge sources and by constructing a water table map from well data. The water table map can be used to help delineate groundwater basin of the Tomstown formation (White, 1988). The aquifer can also be evaluated by creating a water budget (White, 2002). Creating a water budget for an area is a good way to help determine the flow of groundwater in an area (White, 1988). A water budget as has several components that can either be measured physically or calculated (Lindsey, 2005). A water budget is calculated by using the equation: P= SRO + GWD + ET (1) where P is precipitation, SRO is surface water runoff, GWD is groundwater discharge, and ET is evapotranspiration. Precipitation and streamflow are directly measured and evapotranspiration is calculated (Lindsey, 2005). The streams in the recharge area should be monitored and protected from contamination. If the quality of the streams in the recharge area decrease than the quality of the Tomstown aquifer will decrease. In the future, programs should be created to monitor and protect the streams in the recharge area. 19

21 5.3 Tomstown Aquifer Protection Plan: Protecting and monitoring the Tomstown aquifer and its recharge area is essential because various land use practices in the area have the abilityl to degrade the quality of the aquifer. Below is an outline for the Tomstown Aquifer Protection Plan. The plan includes several different programs than can be used to help protect the aquifer.. The local government, state agencies (such as the PADEP), and the general public should collaborate with one other ensure that the Tomstown aquifer and its recharge area are not degraded by various land uses in the area. Tomstown Aquifer Monitoring Program: Create a monitoring program for the aquifer. o Collect baseline data for the aquifer and its recharge area Temperature, ph, specific conductivity, etc. o Fecal coliform, nutrient, and pesticide concentrations in wells in the aquifer should be monitored frequently using EPA standards (refer to the EPA website for the standards). o Reports should be generated to determine what areas of the aquifer are impaired. Recommendations: Data should be collected from the wells that have been drilled into the Tomstown aquifer to determine the water quality of the groundwater in the aquifer. The aquifer should be monitored frequently to ensure that the water quality of the aquifer is not being negatively impacted by the agricultural practices in the area. The PADEP, the townships, and universities in the area (such as Shippensburg University) could collaborate with one another to create a 20

22 monitoring plan for the Tomstown aquifer. The PADEP and the universities could also be responsible for collecting data from wells in the area. The PADEP typically contracts the United States Geological Survey (USGS) to collect groundwater data for the Water Quality Network program, so there is a large number of people that could potentially help with data collection and interpretation. After data has been collected the PADEP and the USGS could write a report about the water quality of the Tomstown aquifer and then make it available to the general public. Well Head Protection Plan: Townships in that contain the Tomstown aquifer (Figure 8) should collaborate with one another to create a well head protection plan for the Tomstown aquifer. o Form a planning committee (Wisconsin Well Head Protection Plan, 2013) o Delineate a wellhead protection area (Wisconsin Well Head Protection Plan, 2013) o Inventory potential groundwater contamination sources (Wisconsin Well Head Protection Plan, 2013) o Manage a well head protection area (Wisconsin Well Head Protection Plan, 2013) Create buffers around wells in the well head protection area Limit development in the wellhead protection areas. 21

23 Figure 8: Map showing the townships in Cumberland County, PA that contain the Tomstown aquifer. Recommendations: A wellhead protection plan is necessary for the Tomstown aquifer. Even though the Tomstown aquifer is a diffuse flow system, there is still the potential for contamination from various land uses in Cumberland County, PA. As stated before, there is a large amount of agriculture in the land above Tomstown aquifer. Liquid manure spreading, pesticide and herbicide applications, fertilizer applications, leaking septic systems are potential sources of contamination. The townships should be responsible for creating a well head protection plan and for zoning areas as well head protection areas. The townships should first form a planning 22

24 committee. The planning committee could consist of members of the local governments, faculty from universities, and members of the PADEP. The planning committee should hold public meetings to educate the general public about the well head protection plan and the importance of protecting the Tomstown aquifer. After the planning committee is formed, the well head protection area should be delineated. The townships could hire the USGS to delineate the well head protection area and to create an inventory of potential sources of groundwater contamination in the area. After the well head protection area has been delineated and the potential sources of contamination have been inventoried, the well head protection area should be managed frequently. The townships should zone vulnerable areas of the aquifer as well head protection areas and should limit development in these areas. The townships make buffer zones in well head protection zones mandatory. Tomstown Aquifer Recharge Area Conservation Program Water in the recharge area is pristine o Very little development Michaux State Forest Townships should contact PADEP and express interest in the DEP Watershed Grants program o The Environmental Stewardship and Watershed Protection Act authorizes the Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) to allocate nearly $547 million in grants for acid mine drainage abatement, mine clean-up efforts, abandoned oil and gas well plugging and local watershed-based conservation projects. (PADEP Watershed Grants Program, 2015). Recommendations: The townships that contain the Tomstown aquifer should create a conservation program for the Tomstown aquifer s recharge area to ensure that the quality of the water in the recharge 23

25 area remains pristine. The townships could accomplish this by zoning areas that are not located in Michaux Statet Forest as Special Protection Areas (SPAs). The zoning regulations in SPAs are strict and would ensure that development in the recharge area would not degrade the quality of the streams in the recharge area. The zoning for the SPAs could require things such as buffer zones around streams and environmental impact statements to be conducted before development begins (Montgomery County Maryland SPA Plan, 2012). The main objectives of the program would be to limit development in the recharge area and to make sure the streams in the recharge area remain pristine. As stated before, if the quality if the streams in the recharge area decrease, then the quality of the Tomstown aquifer will decrease. Community Outreach: The general public should be involved with protecting and monitoring the Tomstown aquifer. Stakeholder involvement is an efficient way to monitor water resources. The Townships could hold stakeholder meetings to determine who would benefit from the monitoring and protection programs. The townships and organizations such as the PADEP and the USGS could educate the general public about the importance of the Tomstown aquifer and its recharge area. These organizations could also educate farmers about how to manage their land properly so that the amount of contaminants entering the aquifer decreases dramatically. The general public could participate planning the different programs. The recommended programs will only be successful if the general public is involved with the planning. 24

26 6.0 Conclusions: The Tomstown aquifer is a vital water resource in Cumberland County, PA and provides water from agricultural, industrial, and domestic uses. The karst aquifer is vulnerable to contamination from the various land uses in the area and management and monitoring plans should be established in the areas that contains the aquifer to ensure that the quality of aquifer is not degraded. Very little research has been conducted on the quality of the Tomstown aquifer. Further research should be conducted to determine what areas of the aquifer are the most vulnerable to contamination and the general public should be educated on the importance of this water resource in the county. 25

27 Literature Cited Atkinson TC, Smart PL A Survey of British Hydrogeology. London. Bakalowski M Karst groundwater: a challenge for new resources. Hydrogeology Journal. 13(1): Becher, A.E., and Root, S.I., 1981, Ground water and geology of the Cumberland Valley, Cumberland County, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geological Survey, 4th ser., Water Resource Report 50, 95 p., 3 pl Berg, T. M., Edmunds, W. E., Geyer, A. R., and others, compilers, 1980, Geologic map of Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geological Survey, 4th ser., Map 1, 2nd ed., 3 sheets, scale 1:250,000. Cumberland County Comprehensive Plan County-Comprehensive-Plan Dzurik AA Water Resources Planning. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Environmental Protection Agency Watershed Protection: A Statewide Approach. EPA 841-R Environmental Protection Agency National Water Quality Inventory, 1998 Report to Congress, Groundwater and Drinking Water Chapters. Report 816-R Epstein JB, Weary DJ, Orndorff RC, Bailey ZC, Kerbo RC U.S. Geological Survey Karst Interest Group Proceedings, Shepherdstown, West Virginia, August 20-22, US Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report Fetter CW Applied Hydrogeology. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Hortsman J. The Effects That Liquid and Solid Cattle Manure Have on the Water Quality of Drainage Ditches in the Putnam County, Ohio Honors Projects. Paper 130. Hufschmidt MM Perspectives and Goals for Water Resource Planning. Water Pollution Control Federation Journal. 41 (7): Kingsbury JA Relation Between Flow and Temporal Variations of Nitrate and Pesticides in Two Karst Springs in Northern Alabama. Journal of American Water Resources Association. 44 (2): Lindsey BD Hydrogeology and Simulation of Source Areas of Water to Production Wells in a Colluvium-Mantled Carbonate-Bedrock Aquifer near Shippensburg, Cumberland, and Franklin Counties, Pennsylvania. USGS Scientific Report

28 Montgomery County Special Protection Areas (SPA) Plan PAGWIS Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection Watershed Grants. hed_grants/ Stose GW Sedimentary rocks of South Mountain, Pennsylvania. Journal of Geology. 14: Thomas CP, Beckford S Tracing well water pollution in a limestone aquifer. Journal (American Water Works Association), 74 (4): United States Geological Survey USGS Groundwater Issues: Karst. White WB Karst hydrology: recent developments and open questions. Engineering Geology. 65(2-3): White WB Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains. Oxford University Press. Wisconsin Wellhead Protection Plan Younger PL Groundwater in the Environment: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing Ltc. 27