Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability

Transcription

1 103 Deforestation continues to be a problem in most of the Asia and Pacific region, with some of the most valuable hardwood forests shrinking the fastest. Between 1990 and 2010, the proportion of land and territorial water set aside for biodiversity protection rose in all the region s economies. Per capita emissions of carbon dioxide are rising in virtually all economies in the region including in all five most populous economies. Improved sanitation facilities are gradually being extended to rural areas but many countries still have far to go. Introduction Goal 7 has four targets: 7.A Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs and reverse the loss of environmental resources. 7.B Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss. 7.C Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. 7.D By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers. Slums are defined as dwellings in urban areas with at least one of the following characteristics: (i) lack of access to improved water supply, (ii) lack of access to improved sanitation, (iii) overcrowding (three or more persons per room), and (iv) dwellings made of nondurable material. This target is for the world as a whole and does not refer to any particular economy. Key Trends Deforestation is a threat throughout the region. Figure 7.1 shows the percentages of land area covered by forests in 2010 compared with In these 20 years, 20 economies report losses of forest area with only 14 reporting an increase. Many of the losses are substantial. Seven economies lost nearly a fifth or more of their 1990 forest area Armenia (24%), Cambodia (22%), (20%), Myanmar (19%), Nepal (25%), (33%), Sri Lanka (21%), and Timor-Leste (23%). Some of the economies reporting gains were small Pacific islands where forest areas are quite small, although the gainers also included the People s Republic of China (PRC), the Philippines, and Viet Nam. Figure 7.1 Percentage of Land Area Covered by Forest, 1990 and 2010 Micronesia, Fed. States of Palau Solomon Islands Marshall Islands Brunei Darussalam Bhutan Japan Lao PDR Cook Islands Papua New Guinea Korea, Rep. of Malaysia Samoa Taipei,China Cambodia Fiji, Rep. of Timor-Leste Myanmar Viet Nam Georgia Thailand Vanuatu Tuvalu New Zealand Sri Lanka Philippines Nepal Australia Kiribati Tonga Azerbaijan Armenia Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Mongolia Kyrgyz Republic Maldives Tajikistan Singapore Afghanistan Kazakhstan Source: Table MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

2 104 Southeast Asia contains much of Asia s tropical hardwoods. Forest losses reported here included Cambodia (22%), (20%), Myanmar (19%), the Lao People s Democratic Republic, and Malaysia (both 9%). On the other hand, protecting the natural environment is making progress in the region. Figure 7.2 shows the percentages of land and territorial waters that 41 economies have set aside for the protection and maintenance of biological diversity. Protected areas range from 0.4% in Afghanistan to nearly 42% in Hong Kong, China. There has been an increase from 1990 to 2010 in the protected areas of all economies except for Afghanistan,, and Turkmenistan. Sixteen economies have increased their protected areas by 3 percentage points or more. Particularly large increases were made by Bhutan at 14 percentage points, the Lao People s Democratic Republic (15), Kiribati (22), and Cambodia (23). Gains of 9 10 percentage points were observed in Mongolia; Nepal; Taipei,China; and Tonga. The PRC increased its protected area from 13% to 16%, which translates into a large area given the geographical size of the country. The general rule is that rising gross domestic product means rising emissions of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Asia is no exception. Figure 7.3 shows the average annual percentage change in per capita emissions of CO 2 between 1990 and Cambodia was first with per capita emissions of CO 2 growing at 12% per year, followed by Bhutan, the Lao People s Democratic Republic, the Maldives, and Viet Nam (all 9%). It should, however, be remembered that these countries started from very low emission levels in Figure 7.2 Percentage of Protected Terrestrial and Marine Areas, 1990 and 2010 Hong Kong, China Brunei Darussalam Bhutan Cambodia Kiribati New Zealand Taipei,China Thailand Nepal Lao PDR Sri Lanka Malaysia Mongolia Australia Japan Tonga Armenia Azerbaijan Kyrgyz Republic Timor-Leste Myanmar Philippines Palau Viet Nam Tajikistan Singapore Georgia Turkmenistan Korea, Rep. of Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Papua New Guinea Samoa Marshall Islands Vanuatu Afghanistan Source: Table Figure 7.3 Percentage Change of Per Capita Emissions of Carbon Dioxide, 2008 Compared with 1990 Cambodia Bhutan Viet Nam Lao PDR Maldives Nepal Cook Islands Sri Lanka Thailand Malaysia Myanmar Tonga Korea, Rep. of Armenia Marshall Islands Turkmenistan Fiji, Rep. of Philippines Micronesia, Fed. States of Samoa Hong Kong, China Australia New Zealand Brunei Darussalam Japan Source: Table 7.1. Kiribati Nauru Kazakhstan Mongolia Azerbaijan Uzbekistan Vanuatu Timor-Leste Solomon Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Singapore Kyrgyz Republic Georgia Tajikistan Afghanistan

3 105 Sixteen economies had lower per capita CO 2 emissions since These include Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Their CO 2 emissions fell sharply after 1990 both because of steep increases in the price of oil and natural gas and because of a collapse in industrial production. Singapore s per capita emissions were down by 5% per year and it was the only country among the richer ones in the region to reduce per capita emissions. For all other countries, the per capita emissions went up from 1990 levels, including the PRC and at 5%;, 4%; and, 3%. Figures 7.4a and 7.4b compare CO 2 emissions of the five most populous countries in the region with emissions by five large Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. In terms of total emissions (Figure 7.4a) the PRC has overtaken the United States as the largest CO 2 emitter and has now surpassed the largest European economy, Germany. On a per capita basis however, Figure 7.4b shows that the five Asian economies are all below the levels of countries of the OECD. Only the PRC is close to France: the others are far behind. Figures 7.4a and 7.4b suggest just how catastrophic it could be for the world s climate if per capita emissions in the most populous Asian countries rise to the levels of OECD countries. Figure 7.4a Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Five Industrialized Economies and the Five Most Populous Economies in Asia, 2008 (million metric tons) United States Germany Canada United Kingdom France 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 Industrialized Most Populous Sources: Table 7.1 and Millennium Indicators Database Online (UNSD 2011) for Canada, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Figure 7.4b Per Capita Emissions of Carbon Dioxide in Five Industrialized Economies and the Five Most Populous Countries in Asia, 2008 (metric tons) United States Canada Germany United Kingdom France Industrialized Most Populous Sources: Table 7.1 and Millennium Indicators Database Online (UNSD 2011) for Canada, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In most economies, improved sanitation is much more likely to be available in urban areas, but several countries are working to improve the imbalance. Target 7.C is about improving drinking water sources and sanitation facilities in urban and rural areas. The targets are to halve the proportion of households without access to an improved drinking water source and without use of an improved sanitation facility. The main problem in most economies is to provide improved water and sanitation facilities to rural households. Figure 7.5 compares urban rural ratios for proportions of the urban and rural populations with access to improved sanitation facilities for both 1990 and Note that a ratio of 1 in Figure 7.5 only means that both urban and rural areas are being equally provided with access to improved sanitation. In practice, however, the ratios equal to 1 shown in Figure 7.5 were achieved by countries that provide around 100% improved sanitation to both urban and rural households. Ratios above 1 indicate that urban households are being favored over rural households. Ratios above 2.0 were recorded for nine economies in 2008 including Afghanistan, the Lao People s Democratic Republic, Mongolia, and. Ratios below 1 indicate a higher proportion of rural households using improved sanitation. Ratios marginally less than 1 are shown for Kazakhstan, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

4 106 Between 1990 and 2008, all countries except six either improved their ratios, indicating that they have been giving priority to bringing improved sanitation to rural areas, or recorded no change. The six economies whose ratios improved and made impressive gains in bridging the rural urban gap were Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kiribati, the Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau. Figure 7.5 Urban/Rural Ratio of the Proportion of Population Using an Improved Sanitation Facility, 1990 and 2008 Solomon Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of Cambodia Lao PDR Kiribati Azerbaijan Mongolia Afghanistan Timor-Leste Nepal Palau Papua New Guinea Bhutan Marshall Islands Viet Nam Vanuatu Armenia Philippines Myanmar Tuvalu Maldives Georgia Tonga Turkmenistan Kyrgyz Republic Tajikistan Malaysia Uzbekistan Samoa Korea, Rep. of Japan Cook Islands Australia Kazakhstan Thailand Sri Lanka Unimproved water is still used by 13% of the population while 23% practice open defecation. Figures 7.6 and 7.7 show the number of people in Asia with access to improved drinking water and sanitation facilities, respectively. The data respectively refer to 2008 and are sourced from WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Piped water and other cleaned water are currently available to 87% of the population of the Asia and Pacific region. This still leaves 13% of the population, or over 460 million people, without access to safe drinking water. Note: Figure 7.6 Proportion of Population Using Different Sources of Drinking Water, 2008 Other Improved Water 40% (1,454,169) Unimproved Water 13% (462,417) Piped Water 47% (1,715,732) Values inside the parenthesis are total population (in thousand) using different sources of drinking water. Source: Data from WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Figure 7.7 shows the sanitation facilities available to the population of the region. Improved sanitation basically means flush toilets connected either to main sewage pipes or individual cess-pits, and provided to 50% of the population. Shared sanitation (12%) is common in urban areas and is also usually waterflushed. Other unimproved sanitation (15%) consists mainly of earth latrines defecation. Finally, 23% of the population or 850 million people practice open defecation. Open defecation and, to a lesser extent, earth latrines and other unimproved facilities, are a major cause of water and ground pollution leading to diarrheal diseases, which are a major cause of infant and child deaths. Source: Table

5 107 Note: Figure 7.7 Proportion of Population Using Different Types of Sanitation Facilities, 2008 Other Unimproved Sanitation 15% (533,257) Open Defecation 23% (850,989) Shared Sanitation 12% (445,486) Improved Sanitation 50% (1,807,828) Values inside the parenthesis are total population (in thousand) using different sanitation facilities. Source: Data from WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. More countries will meet the MDG water target than the sanitation target. Twenty-two economies are expected to achieve the improved drinking water target but only 16 economies will succeed with basic sanitation (Boxes 7.1 and 7.2). Fifteen economies have already halved the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water, and based on the current trends, another seven are expected to do so by The early achievers include the PRC and, but,, and are making slow progress and may not manage to halve the proportion by On the sanitation target, 11 countries have already halved the proportion of the population with access to basic sanitation, and another five are expected to do so by None of the five most populous countries are likely to achieve the target of providing flush toilets or other forms of improved sanitation by 2015 unless they improve upon their current rates of progress (Box 7.2). Box 7.1 Progress toward Target for Proportion of Population with Access to Improved Drinking Water Early Achievers Armenia China, People s Republic of Georgia Korea, Republic of Kyrgyz Republic Malaysia Nepal On Track Afghanistan Cambodia Kiribati Micronesia, Federated States of Slow Progress Azerbaijan Bhutan Cook Islands Lao PDR Maldives No Progress/Regressing Kazakhstan Marshall Islands Papua New Guinea Source: Derived from Table 7.3. Singapore Sri Lanka Thailand Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Viet Nam Mongolia Philippines Timor-Leste Myanmar Palau Solomon Islands Tajikistan Turkmenistan Samoa Uzbekistan Box 7.2 Progress toward Target for Proportion of Population Using Improved Sanitation Facilities Early Achievers Cook Islands Korea, Republic of Malaysia Maldives Myanmar Samoa On Track Lao PDR Palau Philippines Slow Progress Afghanistan Armenia Bhutan Cambodia China, People s Republic of Kazakhstan No Progress/Regressing Azerbaijan Georgia Kyrgyz Republic Micronesia, Federated States of Singapore Sri Lanka Thailand Uzbekistan Viet Nam Tajikistan Timor-Leste Kiribati Marshall Islands Mongolia Nepal Solomon Islands Tuvalu Vanuatu Papua New Guinea Tonga Turkmenistan MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS Source: Derived from Table 7.3.

6 108 In four of the five most populous countries of the region, more than 30% of the population were classified as slum dwellers in However, all five have made substantial progress in reducing their slum populations since By 2007, had more than halved the proportion of slum dwellers, and both and had cut their proportions by over 40%. The PRC had managed a smaller reduction down by about 30% but, which started with 87% percent of its population in slums, had only cut the proportion by 20% in Available data from United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) suggest that more than 360 million people lived in urban slums in these five most populous countries in Figure 7.8 Proportion of Slum Population in the Five Most Populous Countries of Asia, 1990 and 2007 (% of total population) Source: Table 7.4. Data Issues and Comparability Data on forests and on land set aside for protecting biodiversity come from administrative sources supplemented by satellite imagery. They are broadly comparable and reasonably reliable. Information on carbon dioxide emissions comes mainly from international agencies and is derived by applying emission coefficients to estimates of fuel consumption, cement production, and gas flaring. Emissions by international carriers (ships and aircraft) are usually omitted because they cannot be assigned to a particular country. Data on housing conditions and access to drinking water and sanitation come mainly from population or housing censuses or from demographic and health surveys and living standard surveys. The data are not strictly comparable as definitions may vary between countries but, in general, piped water will have been filtered and chlorinated. Other improved water is from wells and boreholes and is regarded as safer than unimproved water, which is surface water from lakes, ponds, and rivers. As regards sanitation facilities, improved sanitation usually means water-flushed toilets; shared sanitation is also usually water-based; other unimproved sanitation generally means earth latrines; and open defecation is defecation in fields, woods, and on beaches and riverbanks. In practice, definitions may vary between countries.

7 109 Table 7.1 Target 7.A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources Goal 7 Targets and Indicators 7.1 Proportion of Land 7.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions Area Covered by Forest (%) (thousand metric tons) (per capita, metric tons) Developing Member Economies Central and West Asia Afghanistan Armenia (1992) (1992) 1.8 Azerbaijan (1992) (1992) 5.4 Georgia (1992) (1992) 1.2 Kazakhstan (1992) (1992) 15.3 Kyrgyz Republic (1992) (1992) Tajikistan (1992) (1992) 0.5 Turkmenistan (1992) (1992) 9.5 Uzbekistan (1992) (1992) 4.6 East Asia China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China a Korea, Rep. of Mongolia Taipei,China b (2009) MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS South Asia Bhutan Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Southeast Asia Brunei Darussalam c Cambodia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Viet Nam The Pacific Cook Islands Fiji, Rep. of Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of (1999) (1999) 0.6 Nauru Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Timor-Leste (2002) (2002) 0.2 Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Developed Member Economies Australia Japan New Zealand continued

8 110 Goal 7 Targets and Indicators Table 7.1 Target 7.A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources (continued) 7.3 Consumption of All Ozone- 7.5 Proportion of Total Depleting Substances (ODP metric tons) Water Resources Used (%) Developing Member Economies Central and West Asia Afghanistan (1991) Armenia (1991) (1995) 36.4 (2005) Azerbaijan 2.8 (1991) (1995) 35.2 (2005) Georgia 94.8 (1991) (2005) Kazakhstan (1995) 28.9 Kyrgyz Republic (1991) (1995) (2010) Tajikistan 93.3 (1991) (1995) 74.8 Turkmenistan (1995) Uzbekistan 4.4 (1991) (1995) East Asia China, People s Rep. of (2005) Hong Kong, China a Korea, Rep. of (1991) Mongolia (1991) (1995) 1.4 Taipei,China b 15.8 (2001) 15.5 (2008) South Asia (2010) Bhutan (1991) (2010) (2010) Maldives (2010) Nepal 25.0 (1991) Sri Lanka (2005) Southeast Asia Brunei Darussalam c (1991) (1995) Cambodia (1991) (2000) 0.5 (2005) 80.8 (1991) Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar (1991) Philippines (2005) 17.0 (2010) Singapore Thailand (2005) Viet Nam (1991) (2005) The Pacific Cook Islands 0.1 (1991) Fiji, Rep. of Kiribati (1991) Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of (1991) 0.1 Nauru (1991) Palau (1991) 0.1 Papua New Guinea 28.5 (1991) 3.2 Samoa 4.0 (1991) 0.2 Solomon Islands Timor-Leste 0.3 (1991) 0.9 Tonga 0.4 (1991) Tuvalu (1991) 0.1 Vanuatu (1991) 0.1 Developed Member Economies Australia Japan New Zealand a The proportion of land area covered by forest in Hong Kong, China is included in the data of the People s Republic of China. b On proportion of total water resources used, Taipei,China data is equal to the percentage of available resources, that is, the proportion of total amount of water above ground to the annual runoff. c Brunei Darussalam is a regional member of ADB, but it is not classified as a developing member. Sources: Millennium Indicators Database Online (UNSD 2011); for Taipei,China: economy sources.

9 111 Table 7.2 Target 7.B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss 7.6 Proportion of Terrestrial and Marine Areas Protected (%) Developing Member Economies Central and West Asia Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan East Asia China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Mongolia Taipei,China a (2009) Goal 7 Targets and Indicators MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS South Asia Bhutan Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Southeast Asia Brunei Darussalam b Cambodia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Viet Nam The Pacific Cook Islands Fiji, Rep. of Kiribati Marshall Islands 0.6 Micronesia, Fed. States of Nauru Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Timor-Leste 6.4 Tonga Tuvalu 0.2 Vanuatu Developed Member Economies Australia Japan New Zealand a Total size of nature protected areas (including marine area) as percentage of national territory (excluding maritime area). b Brunei Darussalam is a regional member of ADB, but it is not classified as a developing member. Sources: Millennium Indicators Database Online (UNSD 2011); for Taipei,China: economy sources.

10 112 Goal 7 Targets and Indicators Table 7.3 Target 7.C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation 7.8 Population Using Improved Water Sources (%) Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Developing Member Economies Central and West Asia Afghanistan 3 (1995) 12 (1995) 1 (1995) Armenia 92 (1995) 99 (1995) 78 (1995) Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic 78 (1995) 98 (1995) 66 (1995) Tajikistan 58 (1995) 91 (1995) 45 (1995) Turkmenistan 83 (1995) 97 (1995) 72 (1995) 84 (2005) 97 (2005) 72 (2005) Uzbekistan East Asia China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of 90 (1995) 97 (1995) 67 (1995) Mongolia Taipei,China South Asia Bhutan 91 (2000) 99 (2000) 88 (2000) Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Southeast Asia Brunei Darussalam a Cambodia Lao PDR 44 (1995) 78 (1995) 37 (1995) Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore na na Thailand Viet Nam The Pacific Cook Islands (2005) 98 (2005) 88 (2005) Fiji, Rep. of (2000) Kiribati (2005) 77 (2005) 53 (2005) Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of (2005) 95 (2005) 94 (2005) Nauru 90 (2005) 90 (2005) na na Palau (2005) 80 (2005) 94 (2005) Papua New Guinea Samoa (2005) 90 (2005) 87 (2005) Solomon Islands 69 (1995) 94 (1995) 65 (1995) 70 (2005) 94 (2005) 65 (2005) Timor-Leste 52 (2000) 69 (2000) 47 (2000) Tonga 100 (1995) 100 (1995) 100 (1995) Tuvalu Vanuatu Developed Member Economies Australia Japan New Zealand continued

11 113 Table 7.3 Target 7.C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation (continued) Goal 7 Targets and Indicators 7.9 Population Using Improved Sanitation Facilities (%) Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Developing Member Economies Central and West Asia Afghanistan 29 (1995) 36 (1995) 27 (1995) Armenia 88 (1995) 95 (1995) 75 (1995) Azerbaijan 57 (1995) 70 (1995) 43 (1995) Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic 93 (1995) 94 (1995) 93 (1995) Tajikistan 89 (1995) 93 (1995) 87 (1995) Turkmenistan Uzbekistan MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS East Asia China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Mongolia 49 (1995) 67 (1995) 25 (1995) Taipei,China South Asia Bhutan 62 (2000) 87 (2000) 54 (2000) Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Southeast Asia Brunei Darussalam a Cambodia Lao PDR 18 (1995) 56 (1995) 10 (1995) Malaysia Myanmar 49 (1995) 77 (1995) 39 (1995) Philippines Singapore na na Thailand Viet Nam The Pacific Cook Islands Fiji, Rep. of (2000) Kiribati (2005) 49 (2005) 22 (2005) Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of (2005) 61 (2005) 15 (2005) Nauru 50 (2005) 50 (2005) na na Palau (2005) 96 (2005) 52 (2005) Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands 30 (1995) 98 (1995) 18 (1995) 32 (2005) 98 (2005) 18 (2005) Timor-Leste 32 (2000) 55 (2000) 25 (2000) Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu 35 (1995) 53 (1995) 30 (1995) Developed Member Economies Australia Japan New Zealand (1995) a Brunei Darussalam is a regional member of ADB, but it is not classified as a developing member. Source: Millennium Indicators Database Online (UNSD 2011).

12 114 Goal 7 Targets and Indicators Table 7.4 Target 7.D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers 7.10 Slum Population as Percentage of Urban Population a Developing Member Economies Central and West Asia Afghanistan b Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan East Asia China, People s Rep. of b Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of b (2000) Mongolia c Taipei,China South Asia Bhutan b (2000) d Maldives Nepal d Sri Lanka b Southeast Asia Brunei Darussalam e (2000) Cambodia b d Lao PDR f Malaysia (2000) Myanmar g Philippines d Singapore Thailand g Viet Nam The Pacific Cook Islands... Fiji, Rep. of... Kiribati... Marshall Islands... Micronesia, Fed. States of... Nauru... Palau... Papua New Guinea... Samoa... Solomon Islands... Timor-Leste (2000) Tonga... Tuvalu... Vanuatu... Developed Member Economies Australia... Japan... New Zealand... a The actual proportion of people living in slums is measured by a proxy, represented by the urban population living in households with at least one of the four characteristics: (i) lack of access to improved water supply; (ii) lack of access to improved sanitation; (iii) overcrowding (three or more persons per room); and (iv) dwellings made of nondurable material. b Only two shelter components (water and sanitation) from UNICEF/WHO were used to compute the estimates. c For 1990, only two shelter components (water and sanitation), from UNICEF/WHO were used to compute the estimate. For 2005, four shelter components (water, sanitation, sufficient living, and durable housing) from MICS 2000 were used. d Trend analysis was used to estimate 2005 data. e Brunei Darussalam is a regional member of ADB, but it is not classified as a developing member. f For 1990, only two shelter components (water and sanitation) from UNICEF/WHO were used to compute the estimate. For 2005, three shelter components (water, sanitation, and durable housing) from MICS 2000 were used. g For 1990, only two shelter components (water and sanitation) from UNICEF/WHO were used to compute the estimate. For 2005, four shelter components (water, sanitation, sufficient living, and durable housing) were used. Sources: Millennium Indicators Database Online (UNSD 2011), The State of Asian Cities 2010/11 (UN-HABITAT 2011).