Levels of Organization

Transcription

1 Ecology

2 What is Ecology? - Ecology is the scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment, or surroundings - It is named after the Greek word oikos for house, the planet is our house - Ecologists study single cells to the entire living planet, called the biosphere- the living world

3 What is Ecology? - The study of ecology begins with the study of how different organisms obtain and use the energy and nutrients on which life depends - Nature's houses come in many sizes from single cells to the entire planet - Ecologists study single cells to the entire living planet, called the biosphere- the living world

4 Levels of Organization - Biosphere contains the combined portions of the planet in which all of life exists, including land, water, and air, or atmosphere (Highest Level of Organization) - Interactions within the biosphere produce a web of inter-dependence between organisms and the environment in which they live

5 Levels of Organization - To understand relationships within the biosphere, ecologists ask questions about events and organisms that range in complexity from a single individual to the entire biosphere

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7 Levels of Organization - Species a group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed and produce fertile offspring - This is the lowest (1st) level

8 Levels of Organization - Population groups of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area - This is the 2nd level

9 Levels of Organization - Communities assemblages of different populations that live together in a defined area - This is the 3rd level

10 Levels of Organization - Ecosystem a collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with their nonliving, or physical, environment - This is the 4th level

11 Levels of Organization - Biomes group of ecosystems that have the same climate and similar dominant communities - This is the 5th level - Remember the Biosphere is the highest level (6th Level)

12 Ecological Methods - Ecologists use a wide range of tools and techniques to study the living world - Regardless of the tools they use, scientists conduct modern ecological research using three basic approaches: observing, experimenting, and modeling - All of these approaches rely on the application of scientific methods to guide ecological inquiry

13 Ecological Methods - Observing First Step in asking Ecological Questions - Some Questions may be: What species live here? How many individuals of each species are there?

14 Ecological Methods - Experimenting - Second Step - Experiments can be used to test hypotheses

15 Ecological Methods - Modeling - Many ecological phenomena occur over long periods of time or on such large spatial scales that they are difficult to study - Ecologists make models to gain insight into complex phenomena such as the effects of global warming on ecosystems

16 Ecological Methods - Many ecological models consist of mathematical formulas based on data collected through observation and experimentation - The predictions made by ecological models are often tested by further observations and experiments.

17 Now let us try to be like Ecologist. We will examine Animal s behavior and try to understand why they behave this way

18 Looking at Animal s Behavior Take a moment to think about what is going on and why are they doing this?

19 Looking at Animal s Behavior Take a moment to think about what is going on and why are they doing this?

20 Looking at Animal s Behavior Take a moment to think about what is going on and why are they doing this?

21 Looking at Animal s Behavior Take a moment to think about what is going on and why are they doing this?

22 Looking at Animal s Behavior Take a moment to think about what is going on and why are they doing this?

23 Looking at Animal s Behavior

24 If you had to come up with one reason why all of these behaviors are formed (a pattern), what would it be and why?

25 SURVIVAL - Increases their of chance for survival!! - Fish- reduce chances of being captured safety in numbers - Birds- reduce chances of being captured safety in number, conserve energy - Lion- help bring down large prey

26 SURVIVAL - Penguins- stay warm- safety in numbers - Bees- attacking enemy to defend hive - Video- buffalo avoid being captured by being in large group - Can also be used offensively- attack/defend

27 Now with your table you are going to match the definitions of different animal behaviors. Then along with their pictures once you think you solved the puzzle You are then going to transfer it into your notes when approved.

28 Journal Entry (Sub Plans)

29 Energy Flow - At the core of every organism's interaction with the environment is its need for energy to power life's processes - The flow of energy through an ecosystem is one of the most important factors that determines the system's capacity to sustain life - There are many different ways in order for species to collect or obtain their energy

30 Primary Producers - Producers/ Autotrophs - use energy from the environment to fuel the assembly of simple inorganic compounds into complex organic molecules - They produce living tissue from non-living sources, such as water, CO2 and energy

31 Primary Producers - There are two types of primary producers - Those that capture energy from sunlight and those that capture chemical energy - Both are essential to the flow of energy through the biosphere

32 Primary Producers - The best-known autotrophs are those that harness solar energy through a process known as photosynthesis - Photosynthesis is when they use light energy to power chemical reactions that convert CO2 and H2O into O2 and energy-rich carbohydrates such as sugars and starches - Sunlight is the main energy source for life on Earth

33 Primary Producers - Of all the sun's energy that reaches Earth's surface, only a small amount less than 1 percent is used by living things - On land, plants are the main autotrophs - In freshwater ecosystems and in the sunlit upper layers of the ocean, algae are the main autotrophs

34 Primary Producers - Photosynthetic bacteria, the most common of which are the cyanobacteria, are important in certain wet ecosystems such as tidal flats and salt marshes. - Some autotrophs can produce food in the absence of light

35 Primary Producers - These type of autotrophs rely on energy within the chemical bonds of inorganic molecules such as hydrogen sulfide - Chemosynthesis is when organisms use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates - This process is primarily performed by several types of bacteria

36 Consumers - Consumers are also referred to as Heterotrophs - Consumers/Heterotrophs - Organisms that rely on other organisms for their energy and food supply - Heterotrophs cannot capture energy from the sun and must eat other organisms to obtain energy

37 Consumers - There are many different types of Consumers - Herbivores - Omnivores - Carnivores - Detritivores - Decomposers

38 Consumers - Herbivores - Obtain energy by eating only plants (autotrophs) - Examples: cows, caterpillars, and deer

39 Consumers - Carnivores - Obtain energy by eating other herbivores and carnivores (other animals) - Examples: snakes, dogs, and owls

40 Consumers - Omnivores - Obtain energy by eating plants and animals - Examples: Humans, bears, and crows

41 Consumers - Detritivores - Obtain energy by feeding on dead bodies of animals, plants or the waste of these plants and animals - They are also called detritus feeders - Examples: Mites, earthworms, snails, and crabs

42 Consumers - Decomposers - Obtain energy by breaking down organic matter - Examples: Bacteria and fungi

43 Energy Flow - Energy flows through an ecosystem in one direction, from the sun or inorganic compounds to autotrophs (producers) and then to various heterotrophs (consumers) - The relationships between producers and consumers connect organisms into feeding networks based on who eats whom.

44 Energy Flow - Food Chains: - A series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten - The energy stored by producers can be passed through an ecosystem

45 Energy Flow - Straight Line between prey/predator sequence - In this food chain, the top carnivore is four steps removed from the producer

46 Energy Flow - In most ecosystems, feeding relationships are more complex than can be shown in a food chain - When the feeding relationships among the various organisms in an ecosystem form a network of complex interactions, ecologists describe these relationships as a food web

47 Energy Flow - Food Web: - links all the food chains in an ecosystem together - shows complex feeding relationships that result from interconnecting food chains

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49 Energy Flow - Trophic Level (Feeding Levels): - Each step in a food chain or food web - Producers make up the first trophic level - Consumers make up the second, third, or higher trophic levels - Each consumer depends on the trophic level below it for energy

50 Energy Flow - Once the energy gets to a top level, it has been used up and the flow must begin again from the beginning - The more feeding levels between primary producers and consumers, the smaller amount of energy available to top consumers

51 Ecological Pyramids - Ecological Pyramid - a diagram that shows the relative amounts of energy or matter contained within each trophic level in a food chain or food web - Represents the amount of energy or matter in an ecosystem

52 Ecological Pyramids - Ecologists recognize three different types of ecological pyramids: energy pyramids, biomass pyramids, and pyramids of numbers

53 Ecological Pyramids - The energy flow from primary producers to herbivores to carnivores can be drawn as an ecological pyramid, the reason it is a pyramid is because the amount of energy gets smaller as you move into higher trophic levels, just as a pyramid gets smaller as you move higher

54 Ecological Pyramids - For Energy Pyramids, every time an organism eats another, most of the energy obtained is used up rather than stored - Only about 10% of the energy available within one trophic level is transferred to organisms at the next trophic level

55 Ecological Pyramids - Plants 100% Primary Consumers (herbivores) 10% Secondary Consumers (carnivores) 1% Tertiary Consumers 0.1% - ENERGY CANNOT BE RECYCLED!

56 Ecological Pyramids - Pyramid of energy has trophic levels stacked in blocks proportional in size to the productivity of each level

57 Ecological Pyramids - Biomass Pyramid: - Has tiers that each symbolize the total dry weight of all organisms (standing crop biomass) in a trophic level - Biomass: - The total amount of living tissue within a given trophic level

58 Ecological Pyramids - Biomass is usually expressed in terms of grams of organic matter per unit area - A biomass pyramid represents the amount of potential food available for each trophic level in an ecosystem

59 Ecological Pyramids - Pyramid of Numbers: - Represents the numbers of individual organisms at each trophic level - It may not always be represented as a pyramid

60 Ecological Pyramids - Biomass Pyramid: - Has tiers that each symbolize the total dry weight of all organisms (standing crop biomass) in a trophic level - Biomass: - The total amount of living tissue within a given trophic level

61 Journal Entry

62 Ecosystems - An ecosystem is a collection of organismsproducers, consumers, and decomposers- interacting with each other and with their physical environment - Ecosystems are influenced by a combination of biological and physical factors - The factors that influence are Abiotic Factors and Biotic Factors

63 Ecosystems - Biotic Factors: Biological influence on organisms within an ecosystem - All the living things that directly or indirectly affect the environment - The biological, or living, environment, such as the trees, animals, birds, trees, mushrooms, and even bacteria

64 Ecosystems - Abiotic Factors: Physical, or nonliving, factors that shape ecosystems - All those physical and chemical factors that directly or indirectly affect the environment - The physical environment, such as the climate, temperature, precipitation, humidity, soil, wind, nutrient availability, and sun

65 Ecosystems - Together, biotic and abiotic factors determine the survival and growth of an organism and the productivity of the ecosystem in which the organism lives

66 Practice - Determine whether the following are biotic or abiotic factors: Abiotic - Oxygen (O2) Abiotic - Salt - Apple Tree Biotic - Soil Abiotic - Fungus Biotic - Phytoplankton - Light Abiotic - Rocks Abiotic Biotic

67 Ecosystems - Habitat: The area where an organism lives or its surroundings - This is a place where a plant or animal can get the food, water, shelter and space it needs to live - A habitat includes both biotic and abiotic factors

68 Ecosystems - Niche: full range of physical and biological conditions in which an organism lives and the way in which the organism uses those conditions - The organism's role in the community, particularly its role in relation to food with other species - Its niche is essentially its Job/Occupation

69 Ecosystems - The combination of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem often determines the number of different niches in that ecosystem - A niche includes the type of food the organism eats, how it obtains this food, and which other species use the organism as food - No two species can share the same niche in the same habitat

70 Ecosystems - Example: - Woodpeckers make holes in this cactus to live. - When the woodpeckers are finished with this housing, the elf owl and the screech owl move in. - The elf owl eats insects and the screech owl occupies the same habitat, but have different niches

71 - Ecosystems Different species can occupy niches that are very similar

72 Community Interactions - When organisms live together in ecological communities, they interact constantly - These interactions help shape the ecosystem in which they live - Community interactions: - Competition - Mutualism - Predation - Commensalism - Parasitism

73 Community Interactions - Competition: When organisms of the same or different species attempt to use an ecological resource in the same place at the same time - Resource Refers to any necessity of life, such as water, nutrients, light, food, or space

74 - Example: Two species of lizards in a desert might compete by attempting to eat the same type of insect

75 Community Interactions - Competitive exclusion principle: Direct competition for items such as food source or reproductive sites often results in a winner and a loser - One species may be eliminated - This establishes one species per niche in a community

76 - Ecosystems No two species can occupy the same niche in the same habitat at the same time

77 Community Interactions - Predation: An interaction in which one organism captures and feeds on another organism - Predator: The organism that does the killing and eating - Prey: The food organism

78 - Example: Lion attacking Zebra, Bear eating a fish

79 Community Interactions - Symbiosis: Any relationship in which two species live closely together - Three Types: - Commensalism (+/0) - Mutualism (+/+) - Parasitism (+/-)

80 Community Interactions - Commensalism: relationship in which one organism benefits from the relationship and the other is neither helped nor harmed - Example: Barnacles attaching to whales. the barnacles benefit from the constant movement of water past the swimming whale, because the water carries food particles to them

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82 Community Interactions - Mutualism (Mutal): both species benefit from the relationship - Example: The flowers provide the insects with food in the form of nectar, pollen, or other substances, and the insects help the flowers reproduce.

83 Community Interactions - Parasitism: relationship in which one organism benefits from the relationship and the other is harmed - One organism lives on or inside another organism and harms it - The parasite obtains all or part of its nutritional needs from the other organism (Host)

84 Community Interactions - Example: Tapeworms in Humans & Animals, Fleas, ticks, & lice

85 Practice Determine what type of community interaction is taking place: - Mistletoe extracts water and nutrients from the spruce tree. Parasitism - Remoras attach themselves to a shark s body. Then they travel with the shark and feed on the left over food scraps from the shark s meals. Commensalism - Bears and foxes both hunt for fish in lakes. Competition

86 Ecological Succession - Ecosystems are constantly changing in response to natural and human disturbances - As an ecosystem changes, older inhabitants gradually die out and new organisms move in, causing further changes in the community

87 Ecological Succession - Ecological Succession: series of predictable changes that occurs in a community over time - Sometimes succession results from slow changes in the physical environment - Succession can occur naturally, after a fire or volcanic eruption, or it can occur after human disturbance

88 Ecological Succession - Although these alterations are sometimes abrupt (ex. Natural disasters), in most cases species replace others, resulting in long-term gradual changes in ecosystems - Ecosystems will continue to change with time until a stable system is formed

89 Ecological Succession - Primary Succession: When an ecosystem must begin entirely from the start because all soil has been lost - This type of succession occurs in an environment in which new substrate, devoid of vegetation and usually lacking soil - Example: lava flow, volcanic ash, and bare rock exposed when glaciers melt

90 Ecological Succession - Pioneer Species: The first species to populate the area during primary succession - Lichens are typically the first pioneer species due to them being made up of a fungus and an alga and can grow on bare rock. They help break down rocks. - When they die, the lichens add organic material to help form soil in which plants can grow.

91 Ecological Succession - Primary succession continues with the mosses and other small plants moving in eventually leading to a mature forest.

92 Ecological Succession - Primary Succession on a Sand DuneBegins with Sand

93 Ecological Succession - Primary Succession on a Sand DuneSmall Grasses and Plants Move in

94 Ecological Succession - Primary Succession on a Sand DuneLarger Shrubs and Small Trees Move In

95 Ecological Succession - Primary Succession on a Sand DuneA Mature Maritime Forest Forms, This is Called a CLIMAX COMMUNITY

96 Ecological Succession - Secondary Succession: succession following a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil - Community interactions tend to restore the ecosystem to its original condition - Healthy ecosystems usually recover from natural disturbances because of the way components of the system interact.

97 Ecological Succession - Ecosystems may or may not recover from long-term, human-caused disturbances.

98 Ecological Succession - Secondary Succession in a FieldBegin with a Cleared Field

99 Ecological Succession - Secondary Succession in a FieldSmall Plants, Like Wildflowers, Move In

100 Ecological Succession - Secondary Succession in a FieldLarger Shrubs Move In

101 Ecological Succession - Secondary Succession in a FieldSmall Trees Take Root

102 Ecological Succession - Secondary Succession in a FieldA Young Forest Forms

103 Ecological Succession - Secondary Succession in a FieldA Mature Forest Forms - This is Called a CLIMAX COMMUNITY

104 Ecological Succession - Climax Community: a self-perpetuating community in which populations remain stable and exist in balance with each other and their environment - Altered ecosystems may reach a point of stability that can last for hundreds or thousands of years. - A climax community persists until a catastrophic change of a major biotic or abiotic nature alters or destroys it

105 A dead whale that falls to the ocean floor is soon covered with scavengers. The bones contain oil that supports several types of deep-sea bacteria.

106 In the next stage of succession, the bacteria provide energy and nutrients for a different community of organisms that live on the bones and in the surrounding sediments.

107 Community Interactions Art Gallery

108 Cycles of Matter - Energy is crucial to an ecosystem - However all organisms need more than energy to survive - They also need water, minerals, and other life-sustaining compounds - In most organisms, more than 95 percent of the body is made up of just four elements

109 Cycles of Matter - Oxygen - Hydrogen - Carbon - Nitrogen - Organisms cannot use them unless the elements are in a chemical form that cells can take up - Energy and matter move through the biosphere very differently

110 Cycles of Matter - Unlike the one-way flow of energy, matter is recycled within and between ecosystems - Biogeochemical cycles pass the same molecules around again and again within the biosphere - NUTRIENTS CAN BE RECYCLED! - Materials constantly need to be recycled from the living and non-living environment so that materials can be reused by different living organisms.

111 Cycles of Matter - Biogeochemical cycles connect biological, geological, and chemical aspects of the biosphere - Matter can cycle through the biosphere because biological systems do not use up matter, they transform it

112 Water Cycle - All living things require water to survive - Water moves between the ocean, atmosphere, and land - Water cycle involves the processes of photosynthesis, transpiration, evaporation and condensation, respiration, and excretion

113 Water Cycle - Evaporation: - The process by which water changes from liquid form to an atmospheric gas - Transpiration: - Water can also enter the atmosphere by evaporating from the leaves of plants

114 Water Cycle Condensation: Water condenses in the clouds Evaporation: Water evaporates from earth then condenses in the clouds Evapotranspiration Plants and animals use water and return it to the environment Infiltration Some rain sinks into the ground as groundwater Precipitation: Water falls as precipitation (Rain) Rain runoff enters waterways

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116 Nutrient Cycles - Nutrients: Chemical substance that an organism requires to live - Think of them as the body's chemical building blocks. - Every living organism needs nutrients to build tissues and carry out essential life functions - Like water, nutrients are passed between organisms and the environment through biogeochemical cycles

117 Nutrient Cycles - Three nutrient cycles: - Nitrogen - Carbon - Phosphorus - Oxygen participates in all these cycles by combining with these elements and cycling with them during various parts of their journey

118 Nitrogen Cycle - Nitrogen moves from the air to the soil, into living things, and back into the air - All organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids, which in turn are used to build proteins - Many different forms of nitrogen occur naturally in the biosphere - N2 (Nitrogen Gas) - NH3 (Ammonia) - NO3- (Nitrate Ions) - NO2- (Nitrite Ions)

119 Nitrogen Cycle - N2 (Nitrogen Gas) makes up 78 percent of Earth's atmosphere - NH3 (Ammonia), NO3- (Nitrate Ions), and NO2(Nitrite Ions) are found in the wastes produced by many organisms and in dead and decaying organic matter - Nitrogen fixation: - Convert nitrogen gas into ammonia (Nitrogen is fixed by bacteria)

120 Nitrogen Cycle - Certain bacteria fix, or grab, nitrogen from the atmosphere and convert it to a form that can be used by plants - Referred to as Free Nitrogen - Heterotrophs eat these plants and use the nitrogen - Dead organisms containing nitrogen are broken down by microorganisms - Denitrification: soil bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen gas that gets released into the atmosphere

121 Nitrogen Cycle - Some of these dead organisms are brought to the ocean in rain runoff - Phytoplankton can also fix, or grab the nitrogen - Fish eat these phytoplankton reuse the nitrogen to make their own proteins Then the process begins again - PLEASE REFERENCE YOUR NITROGEN CYCLE WORKSHEET

122 Nitrogen Cycle

123 Phosphorus Cycle - Phosphorus is important to organisms because it helps form important molecules like DNA and RNA - Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere - Phosphate is released into the soil and water as sediments wear down - Plants & animals then absorb it from water &/or the foods we eat

124 Phosphorus Cycle

125 Carbon Cycle - Carbon is a key ingredient of living tissue - In the form of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), carbon is an important component of animal skeletons and is found in several kinds of rocks - Carbon and oxygen form carbon dioxide gas (CO2), an important component of the atmosphere - Carbon dioxide is taken in by plants during photosynthesis and is given off by both plants and animals during respiration

126 Carbon Cycle - Four main types of processes move carbon through its cycle - Biological processes: Photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition, take up and release carbon and oxygen - Geochemical processes: erosion and volcanic activity, release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and oceans.

127 Carbon Cycle - Mixed biogeochemical processes: Burial and decomposition of dead organisms and their conversion under pressure into coal and petroleum (fossil fuels), store carbon underground - Human activities: Mining, cutting and burning forests, and burning fossil fuels, release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

128 Carbon Cycle - In the atmosphere, carbon is present as carbon dioxide gas - Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere by volcanic activity, by respiration, by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and vegetation, and by the decomposition of organic matter - Plants take in carbon dioxide and use the carbon to build carbohydrates during photosynthesis

129 Carbon Cycle - The carbohydrates are passed along food webs to animals and other consumers - Eventually, these compounds break down, and the carbon returns to the atmosphere

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131 Nutrient Limitation - If a nutrient is in short supply, it will limit an organism's growth - Limiting Nutrient: - When an ecosystem is limited by a single nutrient that is scarce or cycles very slowly - Farmers are aware of this, so they fertilize. Fertilizers usually contain three important nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium

132 Nutrient Limitation - Algal Bloom: - When an aquatic ecosystem receives a large input of a limiting nutrient, the result is often an immediate increase in the amount of algae and other producers - There are more nutrients available, so the producers can grow and reproduce more quickly

133 Nutrient Limitation - If there are not enough consumers to eat the excess algae, conditions can become so favorable for growth that algae cover the surface of the water - Algal blooms can sometimes disrupt the equilibrium of an ecosystem

134 Conservation of Mass - Conservation of mass Mass cannot be created or destroyed; only its form may change - This is why we balance chemical equations! Mass of reactants = mass of products!

135 Greenhouse Effect - The Earth s atmosphere acts like the glass in a greenhouse, energy from the sunlight enters the atmosphere and is converted to heat - Some of this heat gets back radiated into the atmosphere, while the gases in the atmosphere absorb and hold some of the heat

136 Greenhouse Effect - If we did not have a natural greenhouse effect, the Earth would not be warm enough to support life - The ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT is the problem

137 Greenhouse Effect - Burning fossil fuels, such as gas and oil, adds a lot of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, greenhouse gases are CO2, methane, NO2, and a few others

138 Greenhouse Effect - The additional CO2 is the biggest problem, the Earth gets heated up too much and the following problems are expected to occur within the next years

139 Greenhouse Effect - Oceans will warm and increase in volume causing coastal flooding - Glaciers will melt adding water to the world s oceans causing coastal flooding - Cities that rely on water from the melting of snow-capped mountains will be left thirsty from lack of snow

140 Greenhouse Effect - Parts of countries and cities below sea level, such as the Netherlands, Venice, New Orleans, and New York will be underwater - Water quality and quantity will decrease because waters will be warming and warm water breeds bacteria and other microbes

141 Greenhouse Effect - Species will go extinct due to lack of adequate adaptations to the new environment - The incidence of tropical disease will increase in temperate areas (we live in temperate areas) Examples of these diseases: Malaria, west Nile virus