Appendix Calculations Related to Table 12.1 and Global Warming

Transcription

1 Appendix Calculations Related to Table 12.1 and Global Warming Assume forty 10 km diameter ground sites being illuminated 6 h per day. This ground area is km 2 = 3,120 km 2. Assume that the mirrors are pointed away from the earth unless being directed at these ground sites. So the energy collected by the mirrors beamed down to earth is 1.37 kw h/ day. The above can be compared with the solar energy arriving on the earth in a day which is 1.37 kw ( ) m h/day = 1.37 kw h/day. The ratio of these two energies is / = or 6 ppm. Relative to the earth s T of 300 K, this would be a T rise of = C. Next, let s explore the alternative of generating 220 GW of energy for 14 h per day with natural gas for a period of 20 years. From the Table A.1, NG will generate g per 10 6 BTU. Assume 50 % efficiency from heat to electricity and 1 BTU = kwh, then g/ 300 kwh = 109 g/300 kwh = 1.1 g/3 kwh = 0.35 g/kwh How much CO 2 will be generated by a 220 GW 14 h per day plant in 20 years? GWh = GWh = kwh. CO 2 displaced is then g = g = 8Tg. From Figs. A.1, A.2, one can see that 10,000 Tg of CO 2 has led to about 0.4 C of global warming. So, the displaced CO 2 from burning natural gas would reduce global warming by /1000 C = C. If instead, coal is burned, the CO 2 rise would be C. Both effects are very small but there is a net benefit for space mirrors of a factor of 3.2 compared to coal burning. Finally, note that the space mirror effect is a single event whereas the CO 2 effect is permanent and cumulative. L. M. Fraas, Low-Cost Solar Electric Power, DOI: / , Ó Springer International Publishing Switzerland

2 176 Appendix: Calculations Related to Table 12.1 and Global Warming Table A.1 Fossil fuel emission levels pounds per billion BTU of energy input Pollutant Natural gas Oil Coal Carbon dioxide 117, , ,000 Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides Sulfur dioxide 1 1,122 2,591 Particulates ,744 Mercury Source EIA Natural gas issues and trends 1998 Trends in Global Emissions Fig. A.1 Global carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions from fossil fuels Fig. A.2 Temperature rise in C

3 Author Biography Dr. Fraas has been active in the development of Solar Cells and Solar Electric Power Systems for space and terrestrial applications since He led the research team at Boeing that demonstrated the first GaAs/GaSb tandem concentrator solar cell in 1989 with a world record energy conversion efficiency of 35 %. He received awards from Boeing and NASA for this work. He has over 30 years of experience at Hughes Research Labs, Chevron Research Co, and the Boeing High Technology Center working with advanced semiconductor devices. Dr. Fraas joined JX Crystals in 1993, where he has led the development of advanced solar cells and concentrated sunlight systems. At JX Crystals, he pioneered the development of various thermophotovoltaic (TPV) systems based on the new GaSb infrared sensitive PV cell. In 1978 while at Hughes Research Labs, he published a pioneering paper proposing the InGaP/GaInAs/Ge triple junction solar cell predicting a cell terrestrial conversion efficiency of 40 % at 300 suns concentration. This 40 % efficiency has now been achieved and this cell is the predominant cell today for space satellites. It is now entering high volume production for terrestrial Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) systems. Dr Fraas holds degrees from Caltech (B.Sc. Physics), Harvard (M. A. Applied Physics), and USC (Ph.D. EE). At Caltech, he studied Physics with Prof. Richard P. Feynman. Dr. Fraas has written over 350 technical papers, over 60 patents, and a book entitled Path to Affordable Solar Electric Power and The 35 % Efficient Solar Cell (2005). He is co-editor and co-author of a Wiley book entitled Solar Cells and Their Applications (2nd Edition) published in L. M. Fraas, Low-Cost Solar Electric Power, DOI: / , Ó Springer International Publishing Switzerland

4 Index A 1-axis trackers, 86, 94 Air Mass 1.5, 132 Alexandre Edmond Becquerel, 1, 2 AlGaAs/GaAs solar cell, 3, 4 AM0 = air mass zero or no air = space, 106 Amonix, 87, 88 Amorphous silicon (a-si), 32, 73, 75 Amorphous silicon (a-si) solar cell, 3, 4 Arab oil embargo, 2 Arctic Sea Ice, 16 B Balance-of-system (BoS), 77 Bell labs silicon cell, 2 Black body IR emitter, 136, 137, 152 Boeing hi-tech center, 104 C Cadmium telluride (CdTe), 32 California Valley Solar Ranch, 11 Carbon capture and sequestration, 15 Cassegrain PV module, 112 Chemical beam epitaxy (CBE), 101, 102 Chevron Research Co, 100, 104 Chinese bank solar subsidies, 1 CHP TPV for steel industry, 152, 157 CO 2 levels, 17 Combined heat and power (CHP), 31, 40, 141, 158 Concentrated PV (CPV), 28, 34, 40 Concentrated solar power (CSP), 120 Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV), 3 5, 9, 118 Control moment gyros, 170 Copper and copper oxide cell, 1, 2 Copper indium gallium di-sellenide (CIGS), 31, 32, 34, 35 Crystalline silicon (c-si), 1, 6 Czochralski crystal growth, 1 D Dawn dusk polar orbit, 90, 92, 159, 161, 164, 170 Diode, 45, 51 Direct normal irradiance (DNI), 118 E Eco-drive solar watch, 74 Einstein s photon theory, 1 Electric vehicle (EV), Energy band diagram, 45 Energy gap, 47 Energy information agency (EIA), 13 Energy storage, 119, 121 ENTECH mini-module outdoor test, 106 F First solar, 73, 74, 77 Fracking shale gas, 19 Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy (ISE), 87, 117 Fresnel lens, 88 Fukushima nuclear contamination zone, 164 G GaAs/GaSb dual junction cell, 103, 105, 106, 112 GaAs/GaSb stacked Cell, 5, 105, 106, 112 GaAs/GaSb two junction cell, 39 GaAs/GaSb two junction stacked cell, 5, 6 GaSb infrared cells, 6 GaSb IR cell, 41, 134, 138 L. M. Fraas, Low-Cost Solar Electric Power, DOI: / , Ó Springer International Publishing Switzerland

5 180 Index GaSb shingle mounted circuit, 140 Generic learning curves, 171 Geosynchronous orbit (GEO), 159, 164, 173 Global horizontal irradiance (GHI), 118 Global horizontal irradiation US map, 14 Global solar irradiance (World), 166 Global warming, 16, 18, 22, Group III V semiconductor, 50 H High concentration PV (HCPV), 40 Hot steel billets, 152 Hubbert s peak, 15 Hughes Research Lab, 98, 99 Hybrid lighting, 128, 130, 132, 134 I InfraRed PhotoVoltaics (IR PV), 133, 134 InGaP/GaAs two junction cell, 4 InGaP/GaInAs/Ge cell, 101, 107, 114 InGaP/GaInAs/Ge multi junction cell, 9, 31, 38 InGaP/GaInAs/Ge triple junction cell, 3, 4 Interdigitated back contact Si cell, 70 Intermittency, 119, 121 International space station, 32, 159, 170 IR emitter, 136, 137, 141, 144, 146, 149, 151 IR PV single circuit, 133 L L Garde Sunjammer solar sail, 93 LCOE roadmap, 71 Levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), 13, 25, 26, 81, Levelized cost of energy or simply LCOE, 81 Liquid crystal color TV, 78 Liquid crystal display (LCD), 74, 76 Liquid fuels supply, 16 Liquid phase epitaxy (LPE), 101 Lithium-ion battery energy storage, 121 Low conceentration PV (LCPV), 8 M Matched IR emitter, 141 Metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MO-CVD), 101, 102 Midnight Sun TM TPV stove, 41, 140, 141 Mirror array constellation, 160, 163, 166, 167, 173 Mirrors in space, 90, 91, 94 Molten salt energy storage, 120 Multi-crystalline silicon cell, 36 Multijunction solar cell, 53, 98 N N/P junction solar cell, 34 NASA Glen GaSb cell calibration, NASA space launch system (SLS), 172 National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL), 4, 5 NiO/MgO matched emitter, 141, 143 O Oak Ridge National Lab coalition, 128 P P/N junction diode, 51, 52 Parabolic trough concentrated solar power (CSP), 120 PASP+ module, 106 Peak oil, 15 Periodic table of the elements, 45 Photons, 45 Photovoltaic advanced space power (PASP+) flight, 5 Photovoltaics (PV), 1 7, 9 Portable TPV battery, 143, 144 Price learning curve, 33 Public Utility Regulation Act (PURPA), 4 PV module production by region, 65 PV system price, 27 Q Quantum mechanics, 45 R Representative carbon pathways (RCP), 18 S 3-sun low concentration modules, 86 Sanyo HIT solar cell, 77, 78 Selenium cell, 2 Semiconductor junction, 47 Silicon cell and module fabrication, 1 Single crystal semiconductors, 45 Soitech, 87, 88 Solar cell band diagram, 52 Solar cell efficiencies, 53, 56, 58, 77 Solar cell power curve, 52

6 Index 181 Solar lighting for buildings, 128, 130, 134 Solar module efficiencies, 58 Solar powered calculator, 74 Solar sail, 159, 161 Solar Technology International (STI), 1 Solar village, 119, 121 SolarWorld, 1, 2 Solfocus, 87, 89 SOLYNDRA CIGS failure, 60 Space mirror deployment, Space mirrors, 159, 164, 167, 170 Space power satellite, 90, 91, 161, 173 SpaceX reusable launch vehicle, 93 Spectral control, 143, 149, 152, 155 Spectrolab, 100, 107, 114 Sun power 1-axis C7 low concentration PV system, 86 Sun synchronous orbit, 90 92, 160 SunPower 1-axis T20 tracker system, 84 SunPower C7 field installation, 70 SunPower Corp, 1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 11 SunPower Oasis power block, 11 T Telstar communication satellite, 2, 3 Terrestrial PV, , 169 Terrestrial solar field (CSP), 159, 160 Terrestrial solar field (PV), 90, 159 TetraSun, 77 Thermophotovoltaics (TPV), 31, 40, , 141, , 149, , Thin film cells, 31 Thin film PV, 73, 74 Thin film transistor (TFT), 74 TPV battery replacement, 142 TPV generators quietly powering a UAV, 152 TPV view factor, 141, 145, 156 Tracking the sun, 81, 90 Trough concentrating solar power (CSP) system, 87 Twisted-nematic liquid crystal, 74 Two-axis tracking systems, 87 Typhoon Haiyan, 17, 18 U Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), 143, 151 US Department of Energy (DOE), 13, 23 V Vehicle to grid, W Wind power, 119, 123 Y Yingli solar, 1