EMPOWERING RURAL INDIA: ENHANCING ELECTRICITY ACCESS

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1 Volume 7 Issue 11 (November, 2018) Online ISSN Published by: Abhinav Publication Abhinav International Monthly Refereed Journal of Research in EMPOWERING RURAL INDIA: ENHANCING ELECTRICITY ACCESS Prof. Dr. Gitanjali Bhatnagar Principal New Delhi Institute of Management, India gitali07@yahoo.co.in ABSTRACT Sustained growth in economy comes with growth from all sectors, among which growth in infrastructure sector is a key requirement for growth in sectors within manufacturing and services. within infrastructure, growth in power sector is one of the most important requirements for sustained growth of a developing economy like India. Rural electrification is expected to improve rural people s quality of life and spur growth on a range of socioeconomic fronts. In recent years rural electrification has shown remarkable progress. In this paper effort has been made to identify electricity access to empower rural India Keywords: rural electrification, reforms, household, economics, development, power sector INTRODUCTION Rural development in the area of health, agriculture, education, small scale industries and other infrastructure in the villages is possible when electricity as one of the major driving input is accessible by those services and economic resources. There are several rural electrification schemes in operation which encourage use of renewable energy, but the difficulties are the distance between field of operation and the controlling units which monitor the daily operation of Plants based on Wind power, solar power and Biogas technology. Successful installation and operation of plants need co operation of village community, government support in financing, socio economic study of villages, especially in remote areas. Electricity remains one of the most critical components of infrastructure that affects economic growth 1. Indian Energy sector has consistently adopted relevant global trends to support sustainable growth in rural Indian economy. The increasing maturing of the power sector is evidenced by adoption and indigenisation of new technologies across the sector in general. The Indian power sector has grown significantly since 1947 and India today is the third largest producer of power in Asia. The power generating capacity has increased from 1,362 MW in 1947 to over 160,000 MW by mid of In last 5years the installed generation capacity in the country stood at 2,67,637 MW as on March 31, 2015 with 96,963 MW (36.23%) in the State Sector, 72,521 MW (27.1%) in the Central Sector and 98,153 MW (36.67%) in the Private Sector. The share of the Private sector has seen an increase over the last three years. In terms of the generation capacity by type as on March 31, 2015, the installed thermal capacity was 1,88,898 MW (70.58%), 41,267 MW (15.42%) was in hydro and 31,692 MW (11.84%) was in renewable energy sources. The nuclear capacity witnessed no new addition during the financial year which stood at 5,780 MW (2.16%) 3. India is one of the fastest growing economies in the world and ranked 6th place in the worldwide consumer of energy. To match with pace of increasing demand of power, Power sector across the Available online on 8

2 world has undergone a lot of restructuring in last decade; India is no exception to this. Power sector reforms in India were initiated in the face of mounting commercial losses due to poor fiscal health of state utilities, endemic capacity, energy shortages and increasing subsidy burden on the states. Investment in the sector was falling far short of demand in power supply. The Government of India, in 1991 embarked upon an ambitious program for reforming the sector with the prime objective of transforming the electricity industry into an efficient enterprise. In past few years, owing to persistent power shortages, coal availability crisis and given the estimated rate of increase in demand for electricity in India, the GoI has taken significant measures to restructure the power sector, increase capacity, improve transmission, and sub-transmission & distribution network. Today Power industry in India is changing from regulated industry to a competitive industry. Power sector re-structuring program in recent years along with Electricity Act 2003 in India has paved the path for the development of a power market in the country. While large-scale reforms have repeatedly been attempted in the past, India s achievement in the field of rural access to electricity leaves much to be desired. India is home to 35% of the global population without access to electricity and only 40% of all rural Indian households are electrified. Since the beginning of planned economic development, rural electrification has been a high priority in India. The country s central and state governments have attempted to improve the accessibility, availability, and quality of electricity, especially in rural areas. OBJECTIVES Following are the important objectives of the research paper 1. To know about the electrification and electric access in rural India 2. To know about the policy implications of electrification in rural India RESEARCH QUESTIONS The important research question considered in context to the present work hovers around the need and urgency of electrification in rural India and the associated policy implications. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The present research paper is based on the concept of exploratory research and the source of data collection is secondary in nature. Different published sources, reports and other critical review, online published material are being referred in context to the present work. NEED OF RURAL ELECTRIFICATION The village electrification is a main step for improving the socio-economic conditions of rural areas and for the overall countries development, also concern environmental benefits and the costs of the rural electrification in developing countries. The rural electrification is substantially contributes to the development of rural and remote areas 4. In remote areas the electricity is mainly used for powering of light bulbs, fans, television sets, computers and phones, when they are available. The availability of electricity removes poverty and helps in development by fulfilling the health, education, information, communication and health care is facilitated by the powering of computers and phones, water supply (for drinking and irrigation) needs of the rural population 5. When the electricity is used for powering home appliances, household chores tend to become less tedious, when it is used for lighting, the relative brightness of the light bulb as opposed to candle light allows children to read or study in the later hours of the day in remote areas, bringing obvious education and leisure benefits. Women and children benefit directly from these improvements but table or ceiling fans and television sets offer comfort during evening time, increasing the general welfare of all members of the family in the household. Besides the social benefits, decision makers tend to give more importance to the economic impact of access to electricity as an income- generating process. Electricity use is expected to lead to more productive processes, the growth of businesses or farms using electricity will then increase demand for electricity leading to a virtuous growth cycle profitable to both electricity providers and rural communities. Such type of economic growth is Volume 7 Issue 11 (November, 2018) 9

3 obviously an important achievement of any rural electrification programme. The necessary conditions for such economic growth lie in the parallel or complementary development programmes for the newly electrified communities 6. Various types of benefits like better irrigation, food preservation, rural markets, crop processing, agriculture and rural small-scale industries, rural businesses, farms or other small rural structures are emerging through rural electrification. It creates employment opportunities for the village s youth and promotes a better standard of life 7. CONSTRAINS OF RURAL ELECTRIFICATION Rural electrification is an important component of Integrated Rural Development. It has been given not so importance because, villages have few, small, decentralized loads, away from the nearby grid, contributing to additional costs of transmission and distribution. Rural electricity distribution is costly due to dispersed distribution of loads in spread over areas. Domestic consumers inhabit remote rural locations with very little prospect for industrial and commercial growth causing negligence on the part of supply boards. Majority of rural people have less per capita income and farmers cannot afford for energy derived from renewable energy sources, requiring higher capital investment during summer, their dependency increases on electrical supply. Rural domestic consumers are mainly peak time consumers and do not contribute to the improvement of the poor load factors. Rural electrification is an important component of Integrated Rural Development; but it has not given due importance because of the following reasons Villages are located from 3-30 km away from existing grid or even more. 2. They are located in difficult terrain areas like forests, hill areas and deserts. 3. The number of households may range between 2 to 200 with dispersed distribution of loads. 4. Power demand in villages is quite low and rural domestic consumers are mainly peak time 5. Consumers and contributing for poor load factors of The income level is low and hence the paying capacity. Rural electrification has been identified as a critical programme for the development of rural areas. The stated aims of the electrification programme is to ensure economic development by providing electricity access to all the villages and households in order to improve the quality of life and livelihood opportunities in the rural areas. The concept of rural electrification in India has undergone various restructuring programmes. Initially, until 1997, the main focus was on electrification for irrigation to increase the agricultural production of the country. Later this changed to a more focused approach, recognising the importance of reaching electricity to rural areas. RURAL ELECTRIFICATION CORPORATION (REC) The Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) was established as a public sector undertaking in July, Initially, the principal objectives of the corporation were to finance Rural and promote rural electricity co-operatives for funding rural electrification projects across the country. The tasks assigned to the corporation have occasionally been expanded. The main objects currently are 9 : 1. To subscribe to special rural electrification bonds that may be issued by the SEB on conditions to be stipulated from time to time. 2. To promote and finance rural electricity co-operatives in the country. 3. To administer the money received from the govt. and other sources such as grants. 4. To promote, organize or carry on the business of consultancy services and/or project implementation in any field of activity in which it is engaged in India and abroad. Volume 7 Issue 11 (November, 2018) 10

4 5. To finance and/or execute works on small/mini/micro-generation projects, to promote and develop other energy sources and to provide financial assistance for leasing out the above sources of energy. 6. To finance survey and investigation of projects. 7. To promote, develop and finance viable decentralized power system organizations in cooperative, joint, private sector, panchayat and/or local bodies. The need for extension of the electricity system to rural areas was felt quite early, just after the independence of the country. Rural Electrification programme in India was launched with two distinct dimensions i.e. (1) Village Electrification. (2) Irrigation Pump set Energization. The former enhances consumer satisfaction and the latter optimises crop yield. The area of focus was certainly maximising farm output, which did result in the Green Revolution in the mid-1960s. The target based approach of rural electrification was developed in the Fourth and Fifth Plan periods, with focus on pump set energization and guidelines for village grid connectivity for all villages with a population of at least 10. Highlights of Rural Electricity Corporation Source: ww.recindia.nic.in/download/ar /performance_highlights.pdf RURAL ELECTRIFICATION SCHEMES Rural Electrification since ages has been the backbone of rural economy and a basic input for rapid rural development. Government of India to enhance rural electrification has launched many schemes over the years. Rural Electrification Schemes run by GOI are discussed below 11 : PRADHAN MANTRI GRAMODAYA YOJNA (PMGY) The PMGY launched in provided additional financial assistance for minimum services by the central government to all states on a 90% loan and 10% grant basis. These included rural health, education, drinking water and rural electrification. The PMGY, with an outlay of about Rs 1600 crores during the 10thPlan period, was being coordinated and monitored by the Rural Development Division of the Planning Commission. More importantly, under PMGY states had the flexibility to decide on the inter-reallocation of funds amongst the 6 basic services. Thus states could enhance allocations to expedite the pace of rural electrification. The scheme has been discontinued from 2005 onwards. Volume 7 Issue 11 (November, 2018) 11

5 KUTIR JYOTI PROGRAM (KJP) KJP was initiated in to provide single point light connection (60 w) to all Below Poverty Line (BPL) households in the country. KJP provides 100% grant for one time cost of internal wiring and service connection charges and builds in a proviso for 100% metering for release of grants. Nearly 5.1 million households have been covered under the scheme to date. The scheme was merged into the Accelerated Electrification of One Lakh Villages and One Crore Households in May 2004 and now into the Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY). MINIMUM NEEDS PROGRAM (MNP) The MNP, exclusively targeted states with less than 65% rural electrification (by the old definition) provides 100% loans for last mile connectivity. The program resources are drawn from the Central Plan Assistance. Rs. 775 crore was released during for rural electrification under the MNP. The scheme was discontinued in on account of difficulties in implementation. ACCELERATED RURAL ELECTRIFICATION PROGRAM (AREP) The AREP, operational since 2002, provides an interest subsidy of 4% to states for RE programs. The AREP covers electrification of un-electrified villages and household electrification and has an approved outlay of Rs. 560 crore under the 10th Plan. The interest subsidy is available to state governments and electricity utilities on loans availed from approved financial institutions like the REC (Rural Electrification Corporation), PFC (Power Finance Corporation) and from NABARD under the Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF). RURAL ELECTRICITY SUPPLY TECHNOLOGY MISSION (REST) The REST was initiated on 11 th September The mission s objective is the electrification of all villages and households progressively by year 2012 through local renewable energy sources and decentralized technologies, along with the conventional grid connection. REST proposes an integrated approach for rural electrification and aims: 1. To identify and adopt technological solutions 2. To review the current legal and institutional framework and make changes when necessary 3. To promote, fund, finance and facilitate alternative approaches in rural electrification, and 4. To coordinate with various ministries, apex institutions and research organizations to facilitate meeting national objectives RAJIV GANDHI GRAMEEN VIDYUTIKARAN YOJNA The RGGVY is the latest national RE scheme launched by the Ministry of Power to execute the vision for rural electrification as enunciated in the NCMP and recommended by the Chief Ministers conference in The plan was instated in April of 2005 with the following objectives 12 : % electrification of all villages and habitations in the country 2. Electricity access to all households 3. Free of cost electricity connection to BPL (Below Poverty Line) households 4. For achieving the said objectives, the RGGVY envisions creating a: 5. Rural Electricity Distribution Backbone (REDB) with at least one 33/11 KV (or 66/11 KV) substation in each block 6. Village Electrification Infrastructure (VEI) with at least one distribution transformer in each village/habitation Volume 7 Issue 11 (November, 2018) 12

6 7. Decentralized Distributed Generation (DDG) systems where the grid is not cost-effective or feasible Upon launching the RGGVY Smt. Sonia Gandhi, Chairperson of the National Advisory Council, stated: "Rural electrification in all its aspects forms a key - I would say the key - component of Bharat Nirman. The diversification of the rural economy, so very essential to manage the demographic pressures in the countryside, depends critically on the easy availability of reliable power." THE REMOTE VILLAGE ELECTRIFICATION (RVE) PROGRAMME Since 2005, the RVE programme of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energies (MNRE) has been supplementing the efforts of the Ministry of Power (MoP) through complementary measures for the provision of basic lighting / electricity facilities through renewable energy sources. The Remote Village Electrification programme (RVE) is responsible for electrifying un-electrified remote census villages and remote un-electrified hamlets of electrified census villages where grid connection is either not feasible or not economical (because they are located in forests, hills, deserts or islands) and where DDG projects are not implemented by the RGGVY of the Ministry of power. THE JAWAHARLAL NEHRU NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION (JNNSM) The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission was launched on 23 November 2009 in a statement to Parliament by the Union Minister for New and Renewable Energies. This mission is part of the 2008 Indian National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) which seeks to reduce India s future reliance on non-renewable energy sources. The National Solar Mission is a major initiative of the Government of India and State Governments to promote ecologically sustainable growth while addressing India s energy security challenge. It will also constitute a major contribution by India to the global effort to meet the challenges of climate change. By the end of the 13th Five-Year Plan, in 2022, the JNNSM should have led to an installed capacity of MW and the deployment of 20 million solar lighting systems in rural areas 13. STATUS OF VILLAGE ELECTRIFICATION IN INDIA: As on 31st August 2018, 94.% of villages in India are electrified, only 32,227 villages of India are yet to be provided with electricity access. Out of a total of 593,732 inhabited villages as per the 2010 census, as on 31st August 2018, a total of villages were electrified. The definition of electrification of a village happens to be different, it is deemed electrified, if 10 % of all the households of the village has electricity access and if electricity provided to public spaces such as schools, panchayat officers, health centres, community centres and dispensaries. Total inhabited Villages as per 2010 Census Table : Status of Village Electrification in India Villages electrified as on 31/03/2013 as per new definition (Provisional) Cumulative achievement as on 31/08/2018 as per new definition %age of villages electrified as on 31/08/ , % Unelectrified villages as on 31/08/2018(V) Source: As per Central Electricity Authority an overview of the status of village electrification across the 29 states of India as shown in Table seems to be impressive. Out of total of 29 states, 10 states have achieved 100 % village electrification, 12 have above 90%village electrification as on the 31st October Volume 7 Issue 11 (November, 2018) 13

7 Sr. No Percentage of Electrified Villages Table : Status of State Electrification in India Total Number of States Names of the States 1 100% 10 Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Goa, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Punjab, Sikkim and Tamil Nadu % 12 Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra, Mizoram, Rajasthan, Uttaranchal and West Bengal % 4 Jharkhand, Manipur, Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh % 4 Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Orissa, Tripura Source: STATUS OF HOUSEHOLD ELECTRIFICATION: The status of household electrification in rural area has wide gap than claim of village electrification. Contrary to 94.6% village electrification Census of India 2011 indicates that close to 43.2 percent of India s rural households continue to depend on Kerosene for lighting, while even today 0.5 percent of its population or close to 897,760 households does not have access to lighting at all. The table below presents a comprehensive scenario of the sources of lighting in India, which is as per the Government of India Census, The rural electrification has improved in past few years. Absolute number Total number of households Table : Sources of Lighting in India Percentage Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban 246,692, ,826,730 78,865, Electricity 165,897,294 92,808,038 73,089, Kerosene 77,545,034 72,435,303 5,109, Solar 1,086, , , Other oil 505, ,919 97, Any other 493, , , No lighting 1,164, , , Source: 2011 Census: Sources of Lighting: All India ( /2011census/ hlo/ hlo_ highlights.html) COST OF GENERATION AND DELIVERING ELECTRICITY IN RURAL AREA As per above table 43.2 percent population of rural India is dependent on kerosene for lighting, dependence is high on diesel-based generation for heavy users of lighting and commercial activities. The cost of consumption of electricity in rural areas is costly in comparison of urban users. The table. shows the cost of generation and the estimated cost of delivering electricity assuming that it is supplied using one of the following technologies instead of sourcing it from the grid. Volume 7 Issue 11 (November, 2018) 14

8 Table : Economic cost of generating and delivering electricity from decentralized technologies Technology Rs./kWh Levelized economic cost of generation Small and micro-hydro Biomass Wind Solar thermal Solar PV Diesel Levelized economic cost of delivered electricity Source: TERI and World Bank estimates. Empowering Rural India: Expanding Electricity Access by Mobilizing Local Resources MODELS TO ENHANCE RURAL POWER SUPPLY World Bank team led by Gevorg Sargsyan in the report Analysis of Models for Improving Rural Electricity Services in India through Distributed Generation and Supply of Renewable Energy 14 has suggested that Individual models do not address all issues facing rural markets, such as high distribution and commercial losses, very low supply hours, deteriorating quality, and unreliable service. To overcome all these problems combination of models discussed below would not only facilitate a strong role for the private sector; it would also increase the supply of electricity to underserved areas. There are three options to enhance electricity supply in rural areas: 1) Feed-in-tariff (FIT) model: Distributed generation plants sell power to the grid at FIT determined by the regulator, and this power is added to the utility s centralized pool. 2) Rural distribution franchisee (RDF): An input-based distribution franchisee is appointed by the utility for metering, billing, and collection activities, but is not permitted to source power beyond its contract with the utility. 3) Distributed generation and supply (DG&S): Combined generation and distribution, i.e., in addition to distributing power and collecting revenues, the franchisee also generates power locally and supplies to the franchised area. Possible Options for Enhancing Rural Power Supply Source: Empowering Rural India: Expanding Electricity Access by Mobilizing Local Resources Volume 7 Issue 11 (November, 2018) 15

9 Table : Pros and cons of possible models to enhance rural power supply Model Pros Cons Status quo Feed-in-tariff (FIT) model (for renewable energy) Rural distributed franchise Distributed generation supply (DG&S) & Can potentially improve supply to the grid 1.Improves service 2.High potential to reduce losses in rural markets 1.mproves service 2.Improves supply 3.market losses 1.Slow improvement in supply, as improvements are contingent on overall increase in grid supply and no preferential supply is given to urban areas, particularly at peak times. 2.Does not attract capable franchisees (due to erratic power supply) and therefore reduces prospects for improved service and more efficient distribution. 1.FIT subsidies are required, adding to the financial deficit of utilities if funded through sources other than utility revenue (passed though in retail riff). 2.Does not include an obligation to improve service in rural areas (risk of diverting to urban markets instead of rural areas). Does not improve supply and the lack of predictable and demand-responsive supply is a barrier to attracting qualified franchise operators. 1.Needs new financing and business model. 2.FIT subsidies are required, adding to the financial deficit of utilities if funded through sources other than utility revenue (if not passed through in retail tariff). Source: Empowering Rural India: Expanding Electricity Access by Mobilizing Local Resources IMPACT OF ELECTRIFICATION Importance of electricity as a crucial infrastructure input for economic development of rural India has been well established in various research studies. Studies of rural electrification indicate the following broad consensus concerning the impact of electrification in the rural areas 15. A. Quantifiable benefits of rural electrification: 1 Industrial uses of electricity 1. Motive power: replacing liquid fuel. 2. Lighting: replacing liquid fuel or gas. 3. Space heating, cooling and refrigerating: replacing liquid fuel, coal/gas, biomass/ animal waste. 4. Processing food: replacing liquid fuel, coal, gas, biomass or animal waste. 5. Transport: replacing liquid fuel 2 Commercial uses of electricity Volume 7 Issue 11 (November, 2018) 16

10 1. Lighting. 2 Air-conditioning and refrigeration. 3. Improved audio and video opportunities. 4. More attractive atmosphere. 5. Longer opening times 3 Household uses of electricity 1. Lighting-replacing liquid fuel, gas, biomass or animal waste 2. Cooking-replacing biomass, animal waste, liquid fuel, coal or gas. 3. Space heating, cooling and refrigeration-replacing biomass, animal waste, liquid fuel, coal/ gas. 4. Home appliances (fan, iron, radio, TV etc)-replacing batteries, biomass/ coal. 4 Agricultural uses of electricity 1. Water pumping-replacing liquid fuel, coal, and gas or muscle power. 2. Parboiling, heating and drying-replacing biomass, coal or liquid fuel. 3. Chaff cutting, threshing etc-replacing liquid fuel, hydro and muscle power, coal / biomass B. Non Quantifiable benefits: 1 Modernisation, dynamic growth and attitude changes-catalytic effects. 2 Improvement of quality of life, community services (including medical) and participation. 3 Income redistribution and improving social equity. 4 Employment creation. 5 Other socio-political effects such as improving political stability, reducing discontent and disparities between urban and rural areas. CONCLUSIONS The evidence on the economic gains from rural electrification is immense. World Bank (2004) and Mathur and Mathur (2005) point to large differences in time allocation between rural Indian households with electricity and those without it, although concerns about endogenous selection clearly cloud the inferences that can be drawn. Some papers have reported evidence of seemingly large impacts of household electrification on household consumption, income and other dimensions of welfare in developing countries (Khandker et al. 2009a, b, 2012, 2013). Using data for India, claim proportionate impacts of electrification on income of the order of 25-50%.The study found that there are positive impacts of electrification on local economies, namely the creation of new small businesses and jobs, agricultural and other productive activities, and household income, regardless of the types of electrification. The results support that rural electrification helps to reduce time allocated to fuel wood collection by household members and increases time allocated to studying by boys and girls. Rural electrification also increases labor supply of men and women, schooling of boys and girls, household per capita income and expenditure. Electrification also helps reduce poverty. But the larger share of benefits accrues to wealthier rural households, with poorer ones having a more limited use of electricity 16. Volume 7 Issue 11 (November, 2018) 17

11 REFERENCES 1. Ghosh Nirmalendunath (2014), Major issues of rural electrification programme in context of rural development: performance of states in perspective International Journal of Advanced Technology & Engineering Research (IJATER) NCREIRD 2014 Organized by "Rural Energy Centre, Gandhigram Rural Institute - Deemed University, Tamilnadu" Sponsored by "University Grants Commission, New Delhi" pdf 4. Zomers Adriaan (2003) The challenge of rural electrification, Energy for Sustainable Development, Volume 7, Issue 1, pp Sen Rohit (2011) Off-Grid Electricity Generation with Renewable Energy Technologies in India; An application of HOMER, Renewable Energy & Environmental Modelling, University of Dundee Niez Alexandra (2010) Comparative Study on Rural Electrification Policies in EmergingEconomies, Keys to successful policies, International Energy Agency, Ruedela FederationParis,France,pp114. ect.pdf 7. Sen Rohit (2011) Off-Grid Electricity Generation with Renewable Energy Technologies in India; An application of HOMER, Renewable Energy & Environmental Modelling, University of Dundee Kamalapur, Karjagi, Udaykumar Strategies for Sustainable Rural Electrification in Indian Context Journal of Electrical Systems 3-1 (2007): Bilolikar R & Deshmukh R, Rural Electrification in India an overview, emagazine/mar06/rural%20electrification.pdf 10. Dr. Pradeepta Kumar Samanta A Study of Rural Electrification Infrastructure in India, IOSR Journal of Business and Management, Volume 17, Issue 2.Ver. IV (Feb. 2015), PP Vijay Modi (2005) Improving Electricity Services in Rural India, Working Papers Series Center on Globalization and Sustainable Development, The Earth Institute at Columbia University,CGSD Working Paper No Energy_ India.pdf 12. Bilolikar R & Deshmukh R, Rural Electrification in India an overview, emagazine/mar06/rural%20electrification.pdf 13. National Electricity Plan (2012), Volume 1, Generation, Government of India, Ministry of Power Central Electricity Authority. 14. Empowering Rural India: Expanding Electricity Access by Mobilizing Local Resources Kamalapur, Udaykumar Rural Electrification in the Changing Paradigm of Power Sector Reforms in India International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE) Vol.2, No.2, April 2012, pp. 147~154 taken from Mohan Munasinghe, Rural Electrification in the third world, IEEE power engineering Journal, vol.1, July 1999,pp Khandker SR., Samad HA., Ali R, Barnes DF., Who Benefits Most from Rural Electrification? Evidence in India Volume 7 Issue 11 (November, 2018) 18