Contents. Acknowledgments XI Preface XIII List of Abbreviations XV

Transcription

1 V Acknowledgments XI Preface XIII List of Abbreviations XV 1 Introduction Global Energy Flow Natural and Anthropogenic Greenhouse Effect Limit to Atmospheric CO 2 Concentration Potential Remedies Energy Conservation Rational Energy Production and Use Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Nuclear Energy Renewable Energies 8 References 9 Solutions 10 2 Energy Conservation with Thermal Insulation Opaque Insulations Conventional Opaque Insulation: Three Contributions to Heat Transfer Advanced Opaque Insulations: Vacuum Insulation Panels (VIPs) Switchable Thermal Insulations Thermal Measurement Methods Transparent and Translucent Insulations Radiative Transfer Convective Heat Transfer Windows Switchable Glazings Translucent Insulations 43 References 44 Solutions 45

2 VI 3 Thermodynamic Energy Efficiency Carnot s Law Stirling Engine Irreversibilities Exergy and Anergy Compression Heat Pumps and Air-Conditioning Systems Absorption Heat Transformers Energy and Exergy Efficiency 62 References 64 Solutions 65 4 Fossil Fuel-Fired Energy Converters Power Plants The Rankine Steam Process Gas Turbines Combined-Cycle Power Plants Turbine and Cooling Tower Scrubber: Dust Removal, Desulfurization, and DeNO x Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS) Fossil-Fired Back-Up Power Plants Internal Combustion Engines The Otto, Diesel, and Seiliger Processes Fuels for Transportation Thermoelectric Converters (TECs) Exotic Energy Converters Thermionic Converters Alkali Metal Thermal Energy Converter (AMTEC) Magneto-Hydro-Dynamic (MHD) Converter Absorption Cycles Condensation Boilers 108 References 108 Solutions Nuclear Fission Energy and Power Plants Binding Energy and Mass Defect Volume Term Surface Term Coulomb Term Asymmetry Term Pairing Term Fission The Multiplication Factor Neutron Emission Factor k Fast Neutron Enhancement Factor k Resonance Escape Probability k 3 127

3 VII Thermal Utilization Factor k Reactor Control Neutron Flux Reactivity Changes during Power Plant Operation Fuel Conversion and Breeding Nuclear Reactor Types The Fuel Question U235 Enrichment Spent Fuel Reactor Safety and Accidents 152 References 156 Solutions Hydropower Water Runoff from Mountains Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Pipes Running Water from Oceans Ocean Tides Equilibrium Theory of Tides Dynamical Theory of Tides Basin Resonances and Seiches Tidal Power Plants Ocean Waves Characterization of Ocean Waves Energy from Ocean Waves Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Energy from Osmotic Pressure 192 References 195 Solutions Wind Power Wind Velocity Using the Drag Using the Lift Technical Questions Electricity from Wind on Demand Small-Scale Wind Energy Conversion Alternative Wind Energy Converters Wind Energy Concentration 219 References 220 Solutions Photovoltaics (PV) Diodes and Solar Cells Transport Phenomena, I sc and U oc 229

4 VIII 8.3 Temperature Effects Equivalent Circuit Absorption Process and Transitions Advanced Solar Cells Si Production and Energy Amortization Other Solar Materials From Solar Cells to Modules Future Prospects for Photovoltaics Wet Solar Cells 244 References 247 Solutions Solar Space and Hot Water Heating Solar Radiation Flat Plate Collectors Gains, Losses, and Efficiency Temperature Rise along a Solar Flat Plate Collector Temperature Distribution across a Solar Flat Plate Collector Evacuated Thermal Collectors Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) Solar Thermal Heating Systems Active Solar Heating Systems Thermosiphon 271 References 276 Solutions Electricity and Fuels from Solar Heat Concentration of Solar Radiation Solar Troughs Fresnel Systems Solar Dish and Solar Tower Solar Thermic Power Plants Solar Fuels 295 References 297 Solutions Biomass Energy Growth of Biomass Direct Use of Solid Biomass Biogas Biofuel First Production Method Second Production Method Third Production Method 310

5 IX 11.5 Hydrothermal Carbonization of Biomass 311 References 311 Solutions Geothermal Energy The Origin of Geothermal Energy Geothermal Anomalies Geothermal Power Plants Hot Dry Rock 321 References 322 Solutions Energy Storage Mechanical Energy Storage Flywheels Compressed Air Storage Electric Energy Storage Capacitors Supercaps Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) Electrochemical Energy Storage General Considerations Accumulators Lead-Acid Accumulator Ni Cd Accumulator Ni-Metal-Hydride Accumulator Li-Ion and Li-Polymer Accumulator Na-NiCl 2 Accumulator Na-S Accumulator Redox Flow Systems (RFS) Chemical Energy Storage Thermal Energy Storage Sensible Heat Solid Liquid Phase Change Materials (PCMs) Liquid Vapor and Solid Vapor Phase Transitions 357 References 361 Solutions Energy Transport Mechanical Energy Transport Transporting Electricity AC Transmission Lines DC Transmission Lines Superconductivity Heat Transport 382

6 X Heat Pipes District Heating Daily and Annual Temperature Variations near the Earth s Surface Radiative Transfer 393 References 395 Solutions Fuel Cells General Considerations Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) Other Fuel Cells 408 References 408 Solutions Nuclear Fusion Energy Introduction Fuel for Fusion Break-Even and the Lawson Criterion Magnetic Confinement Fusion (MCF) International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF) The National Ignition Facility (NIF) 426 References 430 Solutions 431 Index 435