Environmental Physics
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1 Environmental Physics Second edition Egbert Boeker and Rienk van Grondelle Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam JOHN WILEY & SONS, LTD. Chichester New York Weinheim Brisbane Singapore Toronto
2 Contents Foreword Preface Acknowledgements ix xi xiii 1 Introduction: The Essentials of Environmental Physics The Economic System Living in the Greenhouse Enjoying the Sun Transport of Matter, Energy and Momentum The Social and Political Context 6 References 9 2 Basic Environmental Spectroscopy Introduction to the Solar Spectrum Black Body Radiation The Emission Spectrum of the Sun Interaction of Light with Matter The Transition Electric Dipole Moment The Einstein Coefficients Lambert Beer's Law Biomolecules, Ozone and UV Light The Spectroscopy of Biomolecules Solar UV and Life The Ozone Filter 24 Exercises 27 References 28 3 The Global Climate The Energy Balance: A Zero-Dimensional Greenhouse Model Elements of Weather and Climate Climate Variations and Modelling 50 Excursion 3A. Tvvo Simple Examples of Chaos 57 Exercises 60 References 62 4 Energy for Human Use Heat Transfer Energy from (mainly) Fossil Fuels Thermodynamic Variables Conversion of Heat into Work and Vice Versa; Available Work 79
3 vi CONTENTS Excursion 4A. Efficiency of a 'Real' Heat Engine 81 Excursion 4B. Loss of Exergy in Combustion Heat Engines: Conversion of Heat into Work Internal Combustion Engines: Conversion of Chemical Energy into Work Heat Pipes Electricity Energy Storage and Energy Transport Reducing Pollution 103 Excursion 4C. Energy Savings by Co-generation Refrigeration Transportation The Price of Energy Conversion Renewable Energy Sources Solar Heat and Solar Electricity 115 Excursion 4D. The Grätzel Cell Wind Energy Waves Bioenergy Hydropower and Fuel Cells Nuclear Energy Power from Nuclear Fission Power by Nuclear Fusion Radiation and Safety 165 Excursion 4E. Electromagnetic Radiation and Health Managing the Fuel Cycle; Waste 176 Exercises 184 References Transport of Pollutants Diffusion 194 Excursion 5A. Conservation of Mass Flow in Rivers Ground Water Flow The Equations of Fluid Dynamics Turbulence 242 Excursion 5B. Turbulent Diffusion Gaussian Plumes in the Air Turbulent Jets and Plumes Particle Physics 270 Exercises 277 References Noise Basic Acoustics Human Perceptions and Noise Criteria Reducing the Transmission of Sound 308
4 CONTENTS vii 6.4 Active Control of Sound 319 Exercises 326 References Spectra and Examples of Environmental Spectroscopy Overview of Spectroscopy Population of Energy Levels and Intensity The Transition Dipole Moment: Selection Rules Line Widths Atomic Spectra One-Electron Atoms Many-Electron Atoms Molecular Spectra Rotational Transitions Vibrational Transitions Electronic Transitions in Molecules Scattering Raman Scattering 349 Excursion 7A. Resonance Raman Scattering Rayleigh Scattering Mie Scattering Spectroscopy of the Inner Electrons of Atoms and Molecules X-Ray Emission Spectroscopy X-Ray Absorption Spectra The Auger Effect Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS and XPS) Examples of Environmental Analysis Monitoring Pollution of the Upper Atmosphere with Satellites Lidar: A Technique to Measure the Location of Atmospheric Pollution 362 Excursion 7B. Lidar Measurements of Stratospheric Ozone 367 Excursion 7C. Aerosol Concentrations in the Karkonosze Mountains, Poland Energy-Selective Spectroscopy of Molecules Particle-Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) 389 Exercises 395 References The Context of Society Risk Estimation Limits an Cheap Resources Saving Energy Resources and Nature Reviewing Our Thinking 419 Excursion 8A. Self-Organized Criticality 422 Exercises 425 Essay Questions 425 References 427
5 viii CONTENTS Appendix A Gauss, Delta and Error Functions 429 Appendix B Some Vector Differentiations 431 Appendix C Physical and Numerical Constants 433 Index 435
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