Introduction to Environmental Physics
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1 Introduction to Environmental Physics Planet Earth, Life and Climate Nigel Mason Department of Physics and Astronomy University College, London, UK. Peter Hughes Kingsway College, London, UK. with Randall McMullan Ross Reynolds Lester Simmonds John Twidell with a foreword by Sir John Houghton London and New York
2 Contents List of contributors Foreword Preface Acknowledgements xv xvii xviii xx Chapter 1 Environmental physics: processes and issues Introduction The environment: the science of the twenty-first Century? Environmental concerns in the late twentieth Century What is environmental physics? Physics in the environment Human environment Built environment Urban environment Global environment Biological environment Environmental physics and the global environmental agenda Summary 15 References 15 Chapter 2 The human environment Introduction Laws of Thermodynamics First Law of Thermodynamics Second Law of Thermodynamics Entropy and the Third Law of Thermodynamics Laws of Thermodynamics and the human body Energy and metabolism Thermodynamics and the human body First Law of Thermodynamics and the human body 23
3 viii Contents 2.4 Energy transfer Conduction Convection Radiation Evaporation Energy budget equation 2.5 SurvivE il in the cold Thermal comfort and insulation Boundary layer Wind chill Hypothermia 2.6 SurvivE il in hot climates Second Law of Thermodynamics and the Gibbs free energy Effect of heat on the human body Taking risks, weather and survival Summary References Questions Chapter 3 The built environment Introduction Thermal regulation in buildings Thermal insulation Thermal conduction effects Convection effects Radiation effects U-values Energy use in buildings Efficiency Energy losses Calculation of energy losses Energy gains Air regulation in buildings Ventilation requirements Ventilation installations Heat pumps Heat pump efficiency Condensation Water vapour Humidity Condensation in buildings Buildings of the future 84
4 Contents ix Checklist for a future house Energy use and carbon dioxide emissions Summary 87 References 88 Questions 88 Chapter 4 The urban environment Introduction Townscape Energy in the city Electromagnetic induction Electrical power transmission Transportation Energy efficiency in transport Water for the urban environment Sewage Lighting Sources of light Urban pollution Urban pollutants Particulates Smog Acidrain The car as an urban pollutant Internal combustion engine Efficiency of the car engine Reducing vehicle emissions Noise pollution Human ear Sound levels Hearing loss Summary 126 References 126 Questions 127 Chapter 5 Energy for living Introduction World energy demand World energy supplies Fossil fuels Nuclear power Nuclear fission Nuclear reactors 135
5 x Contents Nuclear fusion Renewable energy Solar energy Transferring solar energy Solar photovoltaic electricity Wind power Average power of a moving mass of fluid Bernoulli's theorem and the aerofoil Forces acting on wind-turbine propeller blades Laminar and turbulent flow Hydroelectric power Water moving through a cylindrical tube Tidal power Wave energy Mathematics of wave power Biomass and biofuels Geothermal power Summary 176 References 176 Questions 177 Chapter 6 Revealing :aling the planet Introduction Remote sensing Orbits of satellites Resolution of satellite images Image processing Radar Applications of remote sensing data Meteorological satellites Landsat Summary References Questions Chapter 7 The Sun and the atmosphere Introduction Solar energy Solar output Rhythm of the seasons Solar cycles and climate change Structure and composition of the Earth's atmosphere Structure of the atmosphere 204
6 Contents xi Composition of the atmosphere Atmospheric pressure Pressure and temperature as functions of altitude Escape velocity Solar radiation Solar spectrum Earth's ionosphere The aurorae Solar photo-induced chemistry Ozone The Earth's ultraviolet filter Ozone chemistry 'Ozone hole' Ozone loss in the Antarctic polar region Ozone loss in the Arctic polar region Terrestrial radiation Earth's energy balance Earth as a black hody Greenhouse effect Global warming Enhanced greenhouse effect Global warming: the evidence Global warming: the predictions Sea-level rise and global warming Summary 236 References 236 Questions 237 Chapter 8 Observing the Earth's weather Introduction Observing the weather Air temperature Pressure measurement Wind measurement Humidity measurement Precipitation measurement Sunshine Visibility Global weather monitoring network Surface network Upper atmosphere network 255
7 xii Contents Weather forecasting Folklore Computer modelling of weather Chaos in weather forecasting Cloud physics Water: the unique molecule Hydrosphere Types of clouds Physics of cloud formation Snow crystals Atmospheric electricity Summary References Questions Chapter 9 Glo l weather patterns and climate Introduction: atmospheric motion Air masses and weather fronts Principal forces acting on a parcel of air in the atmosphere Gravitational force Pressure gradient force Coriolis force Frictional forces Pressure gradients and winds Cyclonic motion Depressions and fronts Thermal gradients and winds Global convection Global weather and climate patterns Global pressure field Global wind patterns Temperature fields Global humidity patterns Cloud patterns Precipitation Summary References Questions Chapter 10 Phys :s and soils Introduction Soils
8 Contents xiii 10.3 Water retention by soils Soil water suction Movement of water through soils Soil-water balance Leaching of solutes through soil profiles Evaporation from the land surface Energy requirement for evaporation Energy balance of wet and dry land surfaces Mechanisms for the transfer of latent and sensible heat away from the evaporating surface Potential evaporation and the Penman equation Evaporation from the land surface Summary 360 References 360 Questions 361 Chapter 11 Vegetation growth and the carbon balance Introduction Plant development Weather Rate of plant development Impact of global warming on crop distribution Plant growth Photosynthesis by individual leaves Photosynthesis by a Vegetation canopy Respiration Allocation of new growth between the various plant parts Water stress and Vegetation growth Carbon balance of the land surface Terrestrial carbon störe Degradation of soil organic matter Modelling soil organic matter dynamics Summary 394 References 394 Questions 395 Chapter 12 Environmental issues for the twenty-first Century Introduction 397
9 xiv Contents 12.2 Demographic change Urbanization Sustainability Energy resources Climate change, survival and health Models, predictions and uncertainties Environmental risk Risk benefit analysis What is being done? Summary: environmental physics as an enabling science 409 Appendices 1 Entropy Mathematics behind Newton's law of cooling Energy consumption self-assessment Doppler effect Pressure Variation with altitude Derivation of the lapse rate Synoptic weather chart Environmental risk and environment impact assessment of ozone-related disasters Units and constants 425 Answers to numerical questions 426 Bibliography 429 Glossary 436 Index 455
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