A Short Review about Soil Moisture -importance, measurements and scale issues
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1 CEE 587: Ecohydrology A Short Review about Soil Moisture -importance, measurements and scale issues Haibin Li Department of Environmental Sciences Rutgers University Dec 15, 2003
2 A Short Review about Soil Moisture -importance, measurements and scale issues Haibin Li Department of Environmental Sciences Rutgers University 14 College Farm Road New Brunswick, NJ, Tel: Soil Moisture has been a hot topic in hydrology, atmosphere, ecology, and soil science due to its active role in various related processes (e.g., evaporation). At the same time, the dynamic interactions between soil, plant and atmosphere requires a clear understanding the role of soil moisture. In this short paper, firstly I am trying to highlight the importance of soil moisture, and then a brief description of soil moisture measurements will be given. Finally, scaling of soil moisture will be presented. 1. Why soil moisture-importance The importance of land-atmosphere interactions in determining climate dynamics has already been widely recognized. As meteorological phenomena, this two way interaction both act as the forcing and react to the forcing by the land surface state (Entekhabi et al, 1996). Rodirguez-Iturbe(2000) points out the dynamics of the interactions is closely connected with the continuum of vegetation-soil-climate. Specifically, climate and soil control vegetation dynamics on the one hand; on the other hand, vegetation exerts important influence on the entire water balance and is responsible for many feedbacks to the atmosphere (Rodriguez-Iturbe, 2001). The differences of thermal and hydrological status of soil characterize the heterogeneities in land surface which tend to enhance convective phenomena, affecting the Bowen ratio and inducing atmospheric circulations, therefore modulating the variability of the climatic system (D Odorico & Rodriguez-Iturbe, 2000) Among those important factors that determine soil surface conditions, soil moisture plays a critical role in land surface process. The implication of soil moisture in climatic models has already been highlighted in several papers (Robock et al, 1995, D Odorico, et al. 2000). Here a summary is given.
3 Firstly, soil moisture influences the distribution of radiant energy, controls the partitioning of energy into sensible and latent heat fluxes at the ground surface, affecting the coupling between the land surface and the planetary boundary layer. Secondly, all those fundamental processes acting in the hydrologic cycle (e.g. evaportranspiration, deep percolation, and runoff), have direct impacts on the soil moisture budget and are affected by the soil moisture through highly nonlinear dynamics as well. Together with the surface roughness effect, soil moisture is involved in the separation of water flow into infiltration and runoff (Entekhabi, et al. 1996, Zribi & Dechambre, 2002). Through GCM experiments, it has been found that moisture inertia at the land surface boundary introduced by adding soil reservoir could act as a low-pass filter which shifts the variability from higher to lower frequencies. So those fluctuations in the atmosphere affected by the surface moisture source are in turn characterized by greater memory and larger range of anomalies both in space and time ( Entekhabi, et al. 1996). This implies that correct soil moisture simulation and calculation is crucial to predict meteorological and hydrological extreme events (i.e., drought and floods) due to climate change (Robock et al. 1995). 2. Measurements of soil moisture Observations are always the first step in order to understand how a thing will work. Generally, techniques used to measure soil moisture can be categorized into two groups: field/ground-based and remote-sensed. Ground-based measurements have a long history and still in service and developing for many research purposes due to their preciseness. Among them, gravimetric technique should be oldest method which extracts a core soil samples with certain depth (e.g., 10 cm) and the soil moisture is given by the mass difference between sample and oven-dried weighing (Robock et al, 2000). Because this technique requires extensive labor, consequently other automation-oriented techniques have been developed in parallel such as TDR, neutron probes or heat dissipation sensors. Ground-based techniques theoretically can take soil moisture at any depth interested and not influenced by the density of the vegetation canopy as remote sensing.
4 Most remote sensing of soil moisture has concentrated on using microwave-length (Western et al, 2002). Either by active (such as Synthetic Aperture Radar) or passive (such as microwave radiometers) mode, remote sensing could respond to soil moisture in the top few mm to few cm of the soil profile depending on the exact wavelength used. Maybe the most important difference between ground-based and the remoting sensed measurements lies in the domain. Ground-based measurements are essentially point value with diameter of several centimeters while the resolution from remote sensing measurements is about 100 m for SAR and could be tens of kilometers for spaceborne microwave radiometers thus remote sensing of soil moisture essentially provide the areal average information. Another key difference between ground-based techniques and remote sensing is that ground-based sensors can be logged providing detailed temporal patterns at a point, whereas remote sensing typically provides spatial patterns at points in time (Western et al, 2002). In terms of validating of remoting sensed measurements, inevitably we have to face with the scale problem: how to use the point ground-truths to validate the areal measurements? Or in another word, should the average from point values be able to represent the area information? If the answer is yes, is there any way to quantify the relationship? All these questions generally might find their answers provided characteristic scale of soil moisture is known. 3. Scaling of soil moisture Soil moisture is variable not only in space but also in time: in response to atmospheric forcing, it is characteristic with spatial autocorrelation scale of several hundred kilometers (Entin et al, 2000), and in response to the balance between potential evapotranporation (PET) and precipitation, it exhibits seasonal variability in time. Due to the mutual interaction between atmosphere, land surface and subsurface or even deeper layer, many moisture dependent processes are highly nonlinear, such as evaporation. If we are to make accurate predictions of the behavior of hydrologic systems, we have to understand the scale effects very well (Western et al, 2002). Moreover, the ground heterogeneity (such as relief, topography) will definitely influence soil moisture and complicate related hydrological responses, such as runoff. Consequently the scale
5 effects may appear far more complex than we would expect and pose a great challenge to model simulation. Temporal Scale The most obvious scale feature of the time series of soil moisture should be the seasonal variation. Specifically, it occurs in response to seasonal changes in the balance between potential evapotranpiration(pet) and precipitation. Over region PET dominates over precipitation, soil moisture tends to be consistently low. Analogously, where precipitation dominates over PET, soil moisture tends to be consistently high (Western et al, 2002). In many climate zones such as midlatitude temperate an obvious seasonal shift between two states is expected. Entin et al (2000), Vinnikov & Robock (1996) have analyzed the temporal autocorrelation scale of soil moisture which mostly comes from midlatitude and found the typical long component is about 2 months. Furthermore, Entin et al (2000) discovered that temporal scales were slightly less for the top thin soil layer compared to the top 1-m layer and the timescales increased with latitude. However the resolution of soil moisture is relatively very coarse in their studies, so the small scale and intermediate scale characteristics which are more important for small catchment hydrology are missing. Another issue related to the temporal scale of soil moisture is soil moisture anomaly, and one of the most interesting scientific questions is how long the soil moisture anomaly signal will persist after propagation and what kind of effect it might have on our climate. Currently all studies related to this topic are model dependent. For example, Pal et al (2002) found the abnormally dry conditions in the Southwest of Unite States may be partially responsible for the intense flooding in the Upper Midwest. Furthermore, the abnormally wet soil moisture conditions in the Midwest are likely to be partially responsible for the flood s persistence and large magnitude. A likely teleconnections mechanism between soil moisture in the Southwest and precipitation at Midwest needs further verification by model independent physical explanations. Spatial Scale
6 There are more research has been devoted to the spatial issues of soil moisture. Generally it is believed that the combination of different sources, such as soil texture, vegetation type, topography, climate conditions, control the spatial pattern of soil moisture. Because different sources have their own domain and might dominate the spatial variability of soil moisture on different scales, for example, the soil property and vegetation might just have a strong local effect at several meters or more, while precipitation could have a domain with unit of kilometers. So it is expected as area increases, small-scale features disappear or are masked and large-scale variability come out and become dominant. Spatial correlation of soil moisture at small catchments studies has been found to be stationary and the correlation length is generally characteristic in the range of several to a few hundred meters (Mohanty et al, 2000a, Western& Blöschl, 1999). As for the intermediate scale, Rodriguez-Iturbe et al (1995) found soil moisture was nonstationary at the scales studied (30 m to 10 km) with the combination of remotely sense ESTAR soil moisture data and a few ground-based measurements. But the intermediate scale studies are still far from enough and deserve further studies. At even larger scale, say hundreds of kilometers, Vinnikov&Robock (1996), Entin et al. (2000) found the correlation length of midlatitude soil moisture data from worldwide agricultural sites is around 500 km and the soil moisture variation could be represented as a stationary field. With respect to these studies, many interesting questions about the spatial correlation scale of soil moisture are waiting to answer: for example what are the dominant forcings that control the variation of soil moisture at corresponding scales? How to quantify them? What s the contribution of white noise if there has? If the results about soil moisture variation are all true, what kind of implication we can get when upscaling from small catchment to watershed largely controlled by atmospheric processes? Is it possible to quantify this transition? Definitely further studies are needed to resolve these puzzles.
7 References: Entekhabi D, Rodriguez-Iturbe I., Castelli F. 1996: Mutual interaction of soil moisture and atmospheric processes, J. Hydrology, 184, 3-17 D Odorico P, Ridolfi L., Porporato A., Rodriguez-Iturbe I., 2000: Preferential states of seasonal soil moisture: The impact of climate fuctuations, Water Resour. Res., 36, Monhanty BP, Famiglietti JS, Skaggs TH. 2000a: Evolution of soil moisture spatial structure in a mixed vegetation pixel during the Southern Great Plains 1997(SGP1997) Hydrology Experiment. Water Resour. Res. 36, Porporato A., D Odorico P, Rodolfi L, Rodriguez-Iturbe I. 2000: A spatial Model for Soil-Atmosphere Interaction: Model Construction and Linear Stability Analysis. J. Hydrometeorology, 1, Robock A, Vinnikov KY, Srinivasan G, Entin JK, Hollinger SE., Speranskaya NA., Liu SX, and Namkhai A. 2000: The Global Soil Moisture Data Bank. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc., 81, Pal JS, Eltahir EAB. 2002: teleconnections of soil moisture and rainfall during the 1993 midwest summer flood. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, Robock A, Vinnikov KY, and Schlosser CA. 1997: Evaluation of land-surface parameterization schemes using observations. J. Climate, 10, Robock A, Vinnikov KY, Schlosser CA, Speranskaya NA., and Xue YK. 1995: Use of midlatitude soil moisture and meteorological observations to validate soil moisture simulations with biosphere and bucket models. J. Climate, 8, Robock A, Schlosser CA, Vinnikov KY, Speranskaya NA., and Entin JK. 1998: Evaluation of AMIP soil moisture simulations. Global Plan. Change, 19, Rodriguez-Iturbe I. 2000: Ecohydrology: A hydrologic perspective of climate-soildynamics. Water Resour. Res., 36, 3-9 Rodirguez-Iturbe I, Vogel GK, Rigon R, Entekhabi D, Castelli F, Rinaldo A. 1995: On the spatial organization of soil moisture fields. Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, Vinnikov KY., Robock A, Speranskaya NA, and Schlosser CA, 1996: Scales of temporal and spatial variability of midlatitude soil moisture. J. Geophys. Res., 101, Zribi M., Dechambre M., 2002: A new empirical model to retrieve soil moisture and roughness from C-band radar data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 84, Western AW, Blöschl G. 1999: On the spatial scaling of soil moisture. J. Hydrol. 210,
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