ASSESSMENT ON WATER QUALITY AND BIODIVERSITY WITHIN SUNGAI BATU PAHAT NURHIDAYAH BINTI HAMZAH

Transcription

1 iii ASSESSMENT ON WATER QUALITY AND BIODIVERSITY WITHIN SUNGAI BATU PAHAT NURHIDAYAH BINTI HAMZAH A project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Engineering (Civil Environmental Management) Faculty of Civil Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia JUNE, 2007

2 v Hanya yang teristimewa t buat Ayahanda Hamzah bin Rostam Bonda Kamaliah binti Shukor Abang-abang; Mohd Azril Fariz Mohd Khuzairi Mohd Hafeez Azad Adik-adik; Mohd Zul Iqbal Mohd Irfan Mohd Sufi Akhbar & Untuk insan i tersayang Mahzan bin Manan

3 vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In the name of God, the most gracious, the most compassionate First and foremost, a very special thanks and appreciation to my supervisor, Dr Johan Sohaili for being the most understanding, helpful and patient lecturer I have come to know. I would also like to express my deep gratitude to my co-supervisor, PM. Dr. Mohd Ismid bin Mohd Said for his valuable time, guidance and encouragement throughout the course of this research. Not forgetting may lovely family that always by my side to support me all the way. Finally, I wish to extend my heartfelt thanks to all environmental laboratories technicians for their timely support during my survey. Last but not least, I also owes special thanks to my friends, who have always been there for me and extended every possible support during this research.

4 vii ABSTRAK Sungai Batu Pahat sedang mengalami kemerosotan kualiti air dan banyak tumbuhan disekitarnya telah musnah. Kajian ini tertumpu kepada penentuan status Sungai Batu Pahat berdasarkan analisis kualiti air dan kepelbagaian biologi secara kualitatif dan kuantitatif. Terdapat enam parameter utama yang diambilkira dalam kajian ini iaitu oksigen terlarut (DO), permintaan oksigen biokimia (BOD), permintaan oksigen kimia (COD), nitrogen ammonia (NH 3 -N), pepejal terampai (SS) dan ph. Manakala parameter biologi pula terdiri daripada ikan, zooplankton, phytoplankton, macrobenthos dan tumbuhan tebing sungai. Kualiti air yang didapati menunjukkan tahap yang seragam dengan kualiti air yang kurang memuaskan di mana berdasarkan DOE-WQI, di hilir dan hulu sungai, data menunjukkan kualiti air di kelas III tetapi menurun ke kelas IV di tengah sungai. Ini mungkin disebabkan oleh aktiviti guna tanah di kawasan tebing sungai seperti aktiviti kuari dan penempatan penduduk. Jika dilihat pada data kepelbagaian biologi, terdapat banyak anak ikan yang mempunyai nilai komersial yang tinggi yang masih hidup kerana kepekatan DO yang didapati melebihi 2 mg/l dan juga kualiti makanan yang tinggi yang diperolehi dari tumbuhan di tebing sungai. Secara umumnya, taburan hidupan plankton dan macroinvertebrata di kawasan kajian sangat dipengaruhi oleh pasangsurut air dan juga pokok bakau. Kepelbagaian biologi didapati tertumpu di kawasan hulu sungai dan bilangannya berkurang di hilir dan tengah sungai kemungkinan disebabkan oleh aktiviti guna tanah yang aktif. Kebanyakan kepelbagaian biologi yang dijumpai adalah dari spesis yang tidak sensitif pada kepekatan oksigen terlarut dan ph yang rendah. Kesan ketara akibat kemerosotan kualiti air boleh dilihat pada habitat macrobenthos yang dijumpai sewaktu kajian dilakukan di mana, macrobenthos hampir pupus dan hanya yang tinggal adalah dari spesis yang tidak sensitif kepada pencemaran. Walaubagaimanapun, terdapat juga banyak kepelbagaian biologi (zooplankton dan phytoplankton) yang sensitif kepada pencemaran di kawasan kajian dan ini memberi erti bahawa Sungai Batu Pahat masih lagi mampu untuk menampung hidupan aquatik kerana ia menyediakan tempat tinggal, tempat membiak dan makanan yang berkualiti tinggi walaupun kualiti air menunjukkan sebaliknya.

5 viii ABSTRACT Sungai Batu Pahat is undergoing poor condition in term of water quality and riverbank vegetation. This study was focus on determining the status of Sungai Batu Pahat due to quantitative and qualitative of water quality and biodiversity analysis. There are six major water quality parameter that considered in this study which are dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammoniacal nitrogen (NH 3 -N), suspended solid (SS) and ph. Biodiversity parameter consists of fish, zooplankton, phytoplankton, macrobenthos and riverbank vegetation. Water quality shows a consistent level with low quality of water which is class III at upstream and downstream but dropped to class IV at middle stream according to DOE-WQI. This could be a consequence of riverbank landuse activities such as quarry and settlement. If based on biodiversity data, the juvenile commercial fish still exist correspond to >2 mg/l of DO concentration and quality food supply from riverbank vegetation. Generally, the distribution of planktonic life and macroinvertebrates within study area was tidal and mangrove dependent. Biodiversity was found abundance at downstream and present with low number and species at upstream and downstream probably because lands use activities. Biodiversity that mostly found within study area is tolerant species to low dissolved oxygen concentration and ph. The impact of water quality can clearly be seen with respect to macrobenthos habitat. Macrobenthos almost disappeared during study event and only tolerant species was present. However, the abundance of high demanding biodiversity (zooplankton and phytoplankton) giving the good result that Sungai Batu Pahat still can support aquatic life due in term of shelter, feeding and breeding area even, the quality of water shows otherwise.

6 ix CONTENT CHAPTER TITLE PAGE DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRAK ABSTRACT CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF SYMBOLS ii iii iv v vi vii xi xiii xvii I INTRODUCTION Introduction Site Description Objective of Study Scope of Study Needs of Study 4

7 x II LITERATURE REVIEW Overview Study Background Sources of River Water Pollution Natural Factor Human Factor Effect of Land use Activity Agricultural Activity Settlements Activity Physico-chemical Parameter Dissolve Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Suspended Solids (SS) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH 3 -N) Acidity and Alkalinity (ph) Biological Parameter Fish Zooplankton Phytoplankton Benthos Mangrove River Classification River Classification Based on Biological Indicator 30 III METHODOLOGY Introduction Literature Review Determine the Parameter Involved Sampling Method 33

8 xi Water Quality Sampling Fisheries Sampling Phytoplankton Zooplankton Macrobenthos Riverbank Vegetation Analysis Chemical Analysis Concentration Measurement of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD 5 ) Concentration Measurement Of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Concentration Measurement Of Nitrogen-Ammonia (NH 3 -N) Measurement of Suspended Solids (SS) Data Analysis 43 IV RESULT AND ANALYSIS Introduction Land Use Analysis Residential Agricultural and Farming Commercial Industrial Water Quality Analysis Water Quality Index Analysis Water Quality Parameter Analysis Dissolved Oxygen Biochemical Oxygen Demand Chemical Oxygen Demand Ammoniacal Nitrogen Suspended Solids ph 65

9 xii 4.6 Biological Analysis Riverbank Vegetation Result Fish Result Phytoplankton Analysis Distribution Pattern of Phytoplankton Due to Riverbank Vegetation Distribution Pattern of Phytoplankton Due to Dissolved Oxygen Distribution Pattern of Phytoplankton Due to ph Zooplankton Analysis Distribution Pattern of Zooplankton Due to Riverbank Vegetation Distribution Pattern of Zooplankton Due to Dissolved Oxygen Distribution Pattern of Zooplankton Due to ph Macrobenthos Analysis Distribution Pattern of Macobenthos Due to Riverbank Vegetation Distribution Pattern of Macrobenthos Due to Dissolved Oxygen Distribution Pattern of Macrobenthos Due to ph 89 V CONCLUSION Conclusion Recommendation 91 REFERENCES 93 APPENDIX 113

10 xiii LIST OF TABLES TABLE TITLE PAGE Water Quality Index (WQI) Department of Enviroments Water Quality Index Standard Parameter Subindex DOE-WQI Interim National Water Quality Standard for Malaysia (INWQS) with related of water quality parameter Water Quality Determination based on Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index Distribution of exiting land use in Batu Pahat List of subdistricts in Batu Pahat Water quality parameter result during high tide Water quality parameter result during low tide Water quality subindex parameters result during high tide Water quality subindex parameters result during low tide Riverbank vegetation that mostly found at Sungai Batu Pahat Number of fishermen according to district Fish species found in Sungai Batu Pahat Range of fish species length Phytoplankton taxa during high tide Phytoplankton taxa during low tide Phytoplankton taxa as compared to DO concentration Phytoplankton taxa as compared to ph Zooplankton during high tide in unit ind/m 3 Zooplankton during low tide in unit ind/m 3 Zooplankton numbers as compared to DO concentration

11 xiv Zooplankton numbers as compared to ph Benthic macroinvetebrates within study area during high tide Benthic macroinvetebrates within study area during low tide Numbers of macrobenthos as compared to DO concentration Numbers of macrobenthos as compared to ph

12 xv LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE TITLE PAGE Major land use that had been identified around Sungai Batu Pahat Common crab in mangrove swamps-porcelain Fiddler(Uca annulipes) Mangrove roots that act as home and hiding place for juvenile fish against predator Geographical Positioning System was used to determine coordinate and distance Portions of Water Quality Sampling Station at Sungai Batu Pahat Upstream of Sungai Batu Pahat. Patches of Nypa habitat are abundance at the upstream because of low salinity water compared to seaward. Water seems to be cleaner from turbidity A lot of shipping activity occurred at the middle stream of the estuary, resulting disturbance of biodiversity and riverbank vegetation as well as water quality depletion Downstream of Sungai Batu Pahat is adjacent to coastal water that have wide opening. At downstream, the land are fully covered by riverbank vegetation especially mangrove in order to protect against tsunami Sungai Batu Pahat during high tide. Fresh water from the river is mixing with coastal water and abundance of fish will take this opportunity to breed at vegetations roots During low tide, the roots of vegetation were clearly seen

13 xvi and this is the time for adult fish go to open sea because, water from estuary was flowing seaward during this period Multi-Parameter Analyzer-Consort C535 that had been used to determine ph level on surface water of Sungai Batu Pahat 55-YSI Dissolved Oxygen Meter was used in order to get dissolved oxygen concentration in unit mg/l on surface water Cast net had been used thirty (30) times for fish sampling. Trammel net was used for five (5) times at certain part of the river where drift net using is allowed Water sampling using Van Dorn Sampler in order to identify phytoplankton assemblages Zooplankton had been caught using plankton net at 0.5m depth from the water surface Ekman grab sampler that used to identify benthic animals with 500µm Endecott sieve on board Squatter area located by the river with improper sewage treatment and solid waste collection system Dumping area that made by local resident and resulting poor view and bad odour Trade activities along Sungai Batu Pahat that trades goods and groceries such as logs and timbers Busy quarry activities during day time along Jalan Minyak Beku closed to Sungai Batu Pahat Trend of water quality from upstream towards downstream during high tide and low tide where water quality was dropped to class IV at middle stream associated with nine potential tributaries that contribute pollutant to estuaries Rubbish that floating on surface water of Sungai Batu Pahat which carried by flow during ebbing time from upstream of the estuaries to coastal area The fluctuation of dissolved oxygen concentration during

14 xvii high tide and low tide with respect to distance which is increased towards downstream For both tides, BOD concentration was increased from upstream and constant as reach at distance 3.21 km to seawards due to human activities at middle stream and undisturbed mangrove area at downstream which is known as abundance organic matter contributor to water bodies COD concentration that consistent seaward for high tide because of dilution from coastal water. However, during low tide, COD was increased at middle stream due to leaching of organic matter and inorganic matter from mangrove area, urban area, as well as decaying of aquatic plants Ammoniacal nitrogen decreasing seawards for high tide and low tide due to increasing of dissolved oxygen concentration Profile of suspended solids from upstream to downstream during high tide and low tide which is increased from upstream to adjacent of coastal water probably because of bottom sediment disturbance consequence from boats and ships traffics as well as imported of suspended solids from mangrove area and Straits of Melaka ph value within Sungai Batu Pahat that can be concluded as acidic water because of natural geology and activities at mangroves roots that was identified to lower the ph Family Ariidae (Catfish) that caught during study event Percentage of species number found within study area Distribution pattern of phytoplankton taxa which is slightly increase towards downstream for high tide and low tide Zooplankton community distribution along the river Macrobenthos that found during study event which shows low diversity during high tide and low tide

15 xviii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS APHA BOD COD DO DOE FSS GPS INWQS IUCN MEDS MPBP SS UM USEPA VSS WQI American Public Health Association Biochemical Oxygen Demand Chemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Department of Environment Fixed Suspended Solid Geographical Positioning System Interim National Water Quality Standard International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Microbial Easily Degradable Substrate Majlis Perbandaran Batu Pahat Suspended Solid Universiti Malaya United State Environmental Protect Agency Volatile Suspended Solid Water Quality Index

16 xix LIST OF SYMBOLS km mg/l kg/m 3 µm cm ind/m 3 L N E C P H J D sp. % C CO 2 H 2 O NO 3 O 2 - NO 2 NH 3 H 2 S FeS 2 PO 4 H-NH 3 Kilometer Milligram per liter Kilogram per cubic meter Micrometer Centimeter Individu per cubic meter Liter North East Carbon Phophorus Shannon-Weiner s Index Pielous s Index Margalef s Index Species Percentage Degree Celsius Carbon Dioxide Water Nitrate Oxygen Nitrite Ammonia Hydrogen Sulfide Iron Sulfide Phosphate Nitric Acid

17 xx Fe Pb Cu Cd Zn Mn Hg Iron Lead Copper Cadmium Zink Manganese Mercury

18 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction River is one of valuable country asset and need to put more attention to rehabilitate it from time to time. It is should be well cared and concerned of its importance without any enforcement. By maintaining and well managing the river, the aesthetic value may increase as well as rate of country economic generation may improve tremendously. Mangroves are intertidal marine plants, mostly trees, and thrive in saline conditions and daily inundation between mean sea level and highest astronomical tides. Mangroves are not a monophyletic taxonomic unit. Fewer than 22 plant families have developed specialized morphological and physiological characteristics that characterize mangrove plants, such as buttress trunks and roots providing support in soft sediments and physiological adaptations for excluding and expelling salt (Schaffelke et al., 2005). For swampy area like Sungai Batu Pahat, the mangrove plants require certain heavy metals as essential nutrients; however an excess in these nutrients may potentially have adverse, ecotoxicological consequences for mangrove communities. Each mangrove plant species has specific adaptation systems, which may control their behavior towards pollutants. A study by previous experiment reveals that in urban area, there are no obvious differences between samples collected in swamps located upstream and downstream. (Marchand et al., 2005).

19 2 1.2 Site Description The main river in the study area is Sungai Batu Pahat which forms from the joining of two rivers namely Sungai Simpang Kiri and Sungai Simpang Kanan about 3.5 km northwest of the town of Batu Pahat. From the point where Sungai Simpang Kiri and Sungai Simpang Kanan joins to form Sungai Batu Pahat, the river flows for approximately 12 km on a south and southwesterly course before draining into the straits of Melaka near Tanjung Api and Minyak Beku. A few tributaries which are connected to the river were identified such as Sungai Peserai, Sungai Benang, Sungai Gudang, Sungai Kajang, Sungai Tambak and Parit Gantong. Within study area, there are a lot of land use activities such as urban area, quarry, barter-trade jetties and pig farm as shown in Figure 1.1. Legend Mangroves Primary forest Residential, Commercial and Industrial Agriculture Pig Farm Quarry Market Figure 1.1: Major land use that had been identified around Sungai Batu Pahat (Low, 2007)

20 3 1.3 Objective of Study The objectives of this study are; (i) To determine the trends of water quality of Sungai Batu Pahat as consequence of land use activities; (ii) To identify the distribution pattern of planktonic life and macrobenthos due to dissolved oxygen, ph and riverbank vegetation; (iii) To identify the status of Sungai Batu Pahat based on water quality and biodiversity analysis. 1.4 Scope of Study The boundary of this study is from the upstream of Sungai Batu Pahat ( N, E) to the adjacent coastal water of Sungai Batu Pahat, i.e. Straits of Melaka ( N, E ). The considering parameter for this study are water quality parameters which consist of Dissolve Oxygen (DO), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), ph (Acidity and Alkalinity), Suspended Solid (SS) and Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH 3 -N), and biological parameters such as fish, zooplankton, phytoplankton, macrobenthos and river bank vegetation. The sampling of water quality is taken at seven stations with six times of frequency for both tides (study period is within August 2006 and September 2006). The data of biodiversity quantity in term of zooplankton, phytoplankton and macrobenthos was taken twice at five stations within August and September, Fisheries sampling also was taken twice which two times during high tide and two times during low tide within study period while riverbank vegetations was measured once within study period because the condition of river bank vegetation is not change

21 4 from actual observation. Only the patches of vegetation from both side of the river is considering in this study. 1.5 Needs of Study Generally, Water Quality Index (WQI) is used to determine the classification and pollutant status of particular water bodies. However, rely solely on WQI is not strong enough to define and justify either the aquatic habitat may survive in the water bodies or vice versa. Instead of using physicochemical parameters, another strong influenced factor is via biological survey. Aquatic habitat may have bad impact causes by deteriorating of water quality. Another reason of fish survival is because of the existing of feeding and breeding area (riverbank vegetation). Beside, there would be a Second port development within study area (Mukim Peserai). Therefore, this study is conducted to determine the existing quality of this river and represent as a baseline data in order to achieve sustainable development.

22 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Overview River is one of valuable country asset and need to put more attention to rehabilitate it from time to time. It is should be well cared and concerned of its importance without any enforcement. By maintain and well manage the river, the aesthetic value may increase as well as rate of country economic generation may improve tremendously. Mangrove forest was surrounded with looses sediment which receive organic matter from various sources such as bacteria (Bano et al., 1997), algae, mangrove litter and human activities (Meziane and Tsuchiya, 2001; Tam et al., 1998). Beside organic matter, human activities such as urbanization and industrialization also contribute to abundance of pollutant in mangrove sediment Organic and inorganic pollution is an environmental problem of worldwide concern because these substance are indestructible and most of them have toxic effects on living organisms, including humans when they exceed a certain concentration (Bahadir et al., 2005; Ghrefat and Yusuf, 2006; Ardebili et al., 2006). Even at low concentration, the tendency to accumulate in the food chain is high (Corami et al., 2006).

23 6 Pollutants released into the environment have been increasing continuously as a result of industrial activities and technological development, posing a significant threat to the environment and public health because of their toxicity, accumulation in the food chain and persistence in nature. The heavy metals lead, mercury, copper, cadmium, zinc, nickel and chromium are among the most common pollutants found in industrial effluents (Bahadir et al., 2005). For swampy area like Sungai Batu Pahat, the mangrove plants require certain substance as essential nutrients; however an excess in these nutrients may potentially have adverse, ecotoxicological consequences for mangrove communities. Each mangrove plant species has specific adaptation systems, which may control their behavior towards pollutants. A study by previous experiment reveals that in urban area, there are no obvious differences between samples collected in swamps located upstream and downstream (Marchand et al., 2005). 2.2 Study Background Sungai Batu Pahat which situated in the southwest of Peninsular Malaysia in the region of to N latitude and to E longitude can be describe as an estuary which is a semi-enclosed water body that has a free connection with the open sea and an inflow of freshwater that mixes with the seawater; including fjords, bays, inlets, lagoons, and tidal rivers (USEPA, 2006). About 3.5 km northwest of the town, Sungai Batu Pahat is forms from the joining of two rivers namely Sungai Simpang Kiri and Sungai Simpang Kanan. The river flows for about 12 km beginning from the joining which form Sungai Batu Pahat on a south and southwesterly course before draining into the straits of Malacca near Tanjung Api and Minyak Beku. Sungai Batu Pahat has a sandy/muddy area and the dominant flow there are driven by the astronomical tides with interval freshwater inflows resulting additional flows. There are likely to be some very high freshwater flows in the estuary from time to time. During spring tide, the typical ranges are in order of 3 meter and neap

24 7 tide is in the range of 1 meter. But sometime, spring tide ranges of nearly 3.7 meter may occur (Uni-technologies Sdn. Bhd.). Sungai Batu Pahat is classified as a small river which covered by riverbank vegetation such as mangrove, nypa and mixed vegetations. However, approximately 4 km southwest of the town of Batu Pahat, will proposed a secondary port development that covers a total land area of acres. Unfortunately, most of the mangroves in the area have been cleared except for some patches of Nypa tree along the river bank as well as some secondary shrubs near Parit Tambak. According to Vincent (2007) observation, low in species count of vertebrates and invertebrate are found at proposed area due to habitat disturbance and degradation. Only 38 species out of 638 Malaysian species were recorded for avifauna, while Odonates which are vital bio-indicator only showed a low 4 species presence out of 230 species from Malaysia. He also found only 2 herpetofauna, 2 molluscs, 3 Signal crabs (Uca spp.), 2 mudskippers, 2 monkey spp., 1 otter and 1 wild pig spp. within the property. However, at non-disturbed area, a higher presence of birds and mammals were found which offer better security, food and shelter. Little egret (Egretta garzetta) were the most found species feeding along the mudflats especially during low tide. One species of stork, the Lesser Adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus) was observed soaring on thermals in numbers which were later determined to be 16 which is significant. IUCN (2006) was listed the stork as near threatened and based on The Asian Waterbird Census, this species are the highest count in Peninsular Malaysia. Beside, riverbank vegetation at Sungai Batu Pahat would be an important resting and foraging site for migratory birds from the Northern Hemisphere that stopover annually from October to January as it is located along the known bird migration pathway named the East-Asian Australasian Flyway.

25 8 2.3 Sources of River Water Pollution River water pollution may occur from non integrated and non systematic of existing management system. From observation, the enforcement to control point sources still weak with respect to standard A and Standard B as align in Environmental Quality Act, Generally, there are two main sources in contributing of river water pollution, which are point sources and non point sources. The point sources consist of detectable sources pollution component such as domestic waste water discharge and industrial waste water discharge. While non point sources is undetectable pollution sources such as surface run off, agriculture and so on. River pollution depending on natural factor and human factor as discuss as follows; Natural Factor Natural factor is hard to identify and it depending on geological factor (Shtiza et al., 2004; Yilmaz et al., 2005), climate changes (Fatimah Mohd Noor et al., 1992), local soil erosion (Rieumont et al., 2004), storm and flood conditions (Homens et al., 2005) There is two major factor that had been identified as natural pollution contribution to degradation of water quality which are agriculture runoff (Dalman et al., 2004; Segura et al., 2005) and urban runoff (Dalman et al., 2004; Thévenot et al., 2003; Segura et al., 2005; Dwight, 2001). These factors may cause flooding because of river incapable to support large quantity and immediate surface runoff during heavy rain or continous rain or both. The characteristic of catchment area may effect to the rate and quality of flow rate. Sloppy earth surface may increase the speed of surface runoff as it decrease water retention time. Hence, soil absortion ability will lowered because normally vegetation in this area is less thicken and the soil easy to erosive. For that reason, the

26 9 effect of surface runoff becomes more serious (Fatimah Mohamad Noor et al.,1992) by affecting public health and economy for particular country (Dwight, 2001) Human Factor Human factor or known as anthropogenic sources is the major contributor to river water and sediment pollution. During the course of the 20th century anthropogenic influence in river systems has become an increasing limiting factor of river discharge (Gonzales et al., 2006; Heininger et al., 2006; Ghrefat and Yusuf, 2006; Yin et al., 2006; Rieumont et al., 2004). The trace element that identifies as most impacted elements by human activities is Cd, Cu, Hg and Zn (Davide et al., 2002). However, according to Marchand et al (2005), the variations in heavy metal content with depth or between mangrove areas result largely from diagenetic processes rather than changes in metal input resulting from local human activities. In some country, the main function of river is as transportation and shipping activities. Heavy ship traffic may cause a lot of pollution to river water quality (Pekey, 2006; Dalman et al., 2004). Beside, dredging activities (Homens et al., 2005), thermal power plant (Demirak et al., 2005), intensive aquaculture (Dalman et al., 2004), inadequate water use management, intensive deforestation (Rieumont et al., 2004) and also mining activities (Dalman et al., 2004; Kehrig et al., 2003) such as gold mining (Gammons et al., 2005), uranium and tin mining (Seidel et al., 2005), mining of chromites and decorative stones (Ardebili et al., 2006) and copper mining (Segura et al., 2005), are the major factor in releasing pollutant to river. Many study shows that non-biodegradable substance measured in surficial bottom sediment near industrial area, all show higher levels of inorganic matter compared to non industrial area. Meaning that, industrial activities discharge a lot of inorganic matter (Ashkan, 2000; Shtiza et al., 2004; Franca et al., 2005; Thévenot et al., 2003; Pekey, 2006; Chen et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2006). Inorganic matter especially chemical and toxic wastes are discharged from various industries, such as smelters, electroplating, metal refineries, textile, mining, ceramic and glass. (Bahadir et al., 2006). For non industrial area, the main sources of inorganic substances in

27 10 surface water are likely to have been traffic emissions, city wastewater and biosolids that used as fertilizer. (Zhang et al., 2006) Municipal waste water, also known as point sources becomes worldwide concern because the effluent discharge is hard to comply with country standard (Dalman et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2006; Yilmaz et al., 2005; Davide et al., 2002). In suburban areas, the use of industrial or municipal wastewater is common practice in many parts of the world. (Sharma et al., 2006; Rieumont et al., 2004). Ammonia concentration is normally high at downstream of waste water treatment plant and nearby the pond with large water habitat population such as duck and swan which discharge abundant of unwanted waste. 2.4 Effect of Land use Activity Land use activities are well recognized as main contributor to deteriorating of river water quality such as agriculture activity and settlement activities as discussed below; Agricultural Activity Pollutant substances of soil resulting from wastewater irrigation is a cause of serious concern due to the potential health impacts of consuming contaminated produce. (Sharma et al., 2006; Thévenot et al., 2003). The used of fertilizer and pesticide such as organochlorine pesticides (OCP) (Turgut, 2002) that used in agriculture may emerge danger in the future (Ghrefat and Yusuf, 2006; Yilmaz et al., 2005; Alonso et al., 2003) and pollutant concentration may clearly increase in the downstream watersheds (e.g., vineyards) because of intense agriculture (Masson et al., 2006). For peri-urban area, they are not only generators but also receivers of various pollutants. The water in peri-urban areas is the source of irrigation water for farmers. (Zhang et al., 2006)

28 11 Sharma et al (2006) suggested that the use of treated and untreated wastewater for irrigation has increased the contamination of Cadmium, Lead, and Nickel in edible portion of vegetables causing potential health risk in the long term. The study also points to the fact that adherence to standards for pollutant substances of soil and irrigation water does not ensure safe food. In general, the concentrations of pollutants in surface waters are significantly higher during the dry season than the wet season because of the dilution by large quantities of rainfall in the wet season. During the dry season, surface water is an important source for irrigation. Irrigation can be a significant pathway for entry of water pollutants to the soil plant system. (Zhang et al., 2006) Settlements Activity Overpopulation (Franca et al., 2005; Smith, 2004; Butcher et al., 2003) in certain country becomes more serious impact to environment concern. As large quantity of community in particular area, the more land is using to support their routine life activities such as for settlements, plantation, livestock such as duck, chicken, cow and pig. Uncontrolled land use activities and breaking the legislation such as overreach river corridor are more likely to be as water pollution sources. The untreated effluent of domestic waste water in settlement area and river dumping (Rieumont et al., 2004) which directly release into river basin consist of high organic and unorganic pollutant element. It is not just affect the water quality, but also resulting in bad odour and affect the health of community nearby. The importance of river should take into account in any new development. Therefore, each vicinity of development should not and suggested to be build outside the river reserve boundary (Marina Majid, 2000).

29 Physico-chemical Parameter There are six major parameter that recommended by Department of Environment, Malaysia in order to determine river classification which consist of dissolved oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH 3 -N), Suspended Solid (SS) and ph Dissolve Oxygen (DO) Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a measure of the amount of oxygen dissolved in solution in a stream. DO diffuse from the atmosphere into the stream until it reaches a saturation point. According to Metcalf and Eddy (2004), the actual quantity of oxygen that can be present in solution is governed by four ways; solubility of the gas, gas partial pressure in the atmosphere, temperature and finally, the concentration of the impurities in the water such as salinity and suspended solid Warmer water has a lower saturation point for DO than cooler water. Water that is flowing at higher velocities can hold more DO than slower water (Smith, 2004). In the summer months, a DO level is tending to be more critical because the rate of biochemical reaction that uses oxygen increases with increasing temperature and the total quantity of oxygen available is lower as stream flows are lower during summer. In waste water system, DO is desirable because it can eliminate the formation of noxious odours (Metcalf and Eddy, 2004). DO is utilized in the processes of respiration and decomposition and only slightly soluble in water and become the most required parameter for respiration of aerobic microorganisms as well as all other aerobic life forms. Levels of DO must be high enough to support the health and well being of aquatic organisms or species may become stressed or disappear from a stream (Smith, 2004). Oxygen is essential for maintenance of the microbial sulfur oxidation process (Seidel et al., 2005). Fall oxidation of the surficial sediment layer relative to summer reduction make the metal sink into sediment (Ashkan, 2000).

30 13 Dissolve oxygen is not using only for determining water quality solely, the value of DO in water bodies will act as indicator for what kind of fish will survive and to what extent the aquatic life may live in the water bodies. Effluent discharging directly into water bodies will decline DO concentration. For example, certain fish need at least kg/m 3 of DO to survive and below kg /m 3, this type of fish will face mortality. During night, DO concentration and ph value are decline because of the rapid oxygen consumption and fast bacterioplankton growth rate (Alongi et al., 2003). Zettler et al (2007) claimed that for macrofauna communities, they are not only depending on the salinity regime but on the occurrence and duration of oxygen depression periods Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) BOD is the total dissolve oxygen required by bacteria for decaying process under aerobic condition. It also the best indicator in determine oxygen pressure in consequence of organic pollution of aquatic organisms living. The value of BOD will continuously increase because of natural plant decaying process and the major contributors that increase total nutrient in water bodies are construction effluent, fertilizer, animal farm and septic system Theoretically, BOD takes an infinite time to complete because the rate of oxidation is assumed to be proportional to the amount of organic matter remaining. In 5-days period, the oxidation of the carbonaceous organic matter is from 60 to 70 percent complete, and within 20-days period, the oxidation is about 95 to 99 percent complete. 5-days BOD (BOD 5 ) is the most widely used parameter of organic pollution applied to waste water and surface water. It involves DO measurement that used by microorganisms in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter. However, the BOD test has a number of limitation which are consist of five; a high concentration of

31 14 active, acclimated seed bacteria is required; need a pretreatment when handling toxic waste and must reduce the effects of nitrifying organisms; only can measure biodegradable organic; after the soluble organic matter present in solution has been used, there are no stoichiometric validity; and required long period to obtain test result (Metcalf and Eddy, 2004). The approximate quantity of oxygen that will be required to biologically stabilize the organic matter present can be determined by carried out BOD test. Beside, we can determine the size of waste treatment facilities as well as the efficiency of some treatment processes. Another purpose of BOD test is to determine compliance with wastewater discharge permits. Furthermore, BOD test detail and its limitation supposed to be well understood because the test will continue to be used some time Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) COD refer to the quantity of oxygen required to oxidize a complete organic substance chemically to form Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) and water (H 2 O). The deteriorating of water quality can be measured with high value of COD and lower value of COD represent otherwise. COD mostly show higher value than BOD value. However, there are no consistent correlations between two different samples but must take into account that BOD only dealing with organic matter and COD can deal with both organic and inorganic matter. That is the reason why COD value is much higher than BOD value. However, there is no point to get BOD value by measuring COD solely because for most wastewater treatment plant the operation is the biologically and the priority is given to BOD test compared to COD test (Nathanson, 1986). COD test is used for oxidize many organic substance which difficult to oxidize biologically such as lignin that only can oxidize chemically. In COD test, dichromate will be used in order to oxidize inorganic substance and increase the

32 15 apparent organic content of the sample. Sometime, the organic substance in water sample may be toxic to the microorganisms used in BOD test. The main advantage of COD test is it only takes 2.5 hour to complete the test compared to 5 or more days for BOD test. Wastewater with high COD concentration can cause a substantial damage to submersed plant, however, by using of chitosan that suggested by Xu et al (2006) probably could relieve the membrane lipid peroxidization and ultrastructure phytotoxicities, and protect plant cells from stress of high COD concentration polluted water. Shen et al (2005) state that COD usually use in wastewater to determine the microbial easily degradable substrate (MEDS). In tropical coastalwetland in Southern Mexico, the COD value is high associated with mangrove enriched organic matter (Sarkar et al., 2005; Hernandez-Romero et al., 2004) Total Suspended Solid (TSS) Total solids content is the most vital physical characteristic of both water and wastewater, which is composed of colloidal matter, floating matter, settleable matter, floating matter and matter in solution. Solids can be classified as suspended and deposit (Spellman, 1999). Suspended solids is found in the water column where is being transported by water movements. It is also referred to as Total Suspended Solid (TSS), Volatile Suspended Solid (VSS) and Fixed Suspended Solid (FSS) beside in related to turbidity and conductivity. While deposit solids are that found on the bed of a river or lake through sedimentation process. SS has a potential to harm fish and aquatic life productivity because it is well recognize as a major carrier of inorganic and organic pollutant as well as other nutrients (McCaull and Crossland, 1974). It also may create abundances of estuarine algal blooms (as diatoms and other typically benign microalgae or as macroalgae), followed by oxygen deficits and finfish and/or shellfish kills (Donald et al., 2002)

33 16 especially for early-stages fish that more sensitive to SS (Hadil Rajali and Gambang, 2000) due to lack of light penetration to water bodies (Hoai et al., 2006). Mangrove litter contributes a lot of nutrient or detritus for microscopic growth to water column (Sheridan, 1996; Lee, 1999; Alongi et al., 2003). According to Capo et al. (2005), since water level increased during high tide, mangrove swamps and forest will inundate and trap the suspended matter that supplied from estuarine channels. When the river discharge decreases, the SS are re-injected into the estuary, and caused high turbidity during low tide. Flooding waters from the river mainly bring organic matter into the estuary that includes plant debris and dissolved humic compounds. It is suggested to sampling during mid tide because this period has highest level of suspended matter rather than during the slack of both high and low waters (Hoai et al., 2006) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH 3 -N) Ammonia (NH 3 ) is refer to inorganic substance that abundance found on surface water, soil and easily catered through plant tissue decaying and composed of animal waste. Ammonia that rich with nitrogen will be oxidized to nitrite (NO 2- ) by soil bacteria; Nitrosomonas with the absence of high dissolve oxygen in water. Then, nitrification is occurred when Nitrobacter bacteria oxidize the nitrite to form a nitrate (NO 3 ) (Cech, 2003). Surface water may be polluted when ammonia level is reach until 0.1 mg/l and since the level increase to 0.2 mg/l, water bodies are no longer safety place for aquatic life because of high toxicity. There are a lot of contributors to increase the ammonia level in river. Improper management of sewerage services, animal waste especially pig farm and waste from palm oil mill are the main contributors. Ammoniacal nitrogen can present in two forms which are monochloramines and discholomines with chlorine (Maketab Mohamad, 1993). The decay of dead algae and other organic material also produce ammonia that can be toxic to many forms of aquatic life.

34 17 According to Jack (2006), when dissolved oxygen decrease, ammonia levels tend to increase. He added that ammonia is recognizing as the number one killer of tropical fish. As the level of ammonia rises, the death rate climbs even higher. Ammonia affects fish by causing the blood to lose its ability to carry oxygen. This creates stress and lowers the resistance of fish to such recurrent bacterial infections as fin and tail rot, body slime, eye cloud, mouth fungus, and body sores Alkalinity and Acidity (ph) One of the most essential parameter for both natural waters and wastewaters is the hydrogen-ion concentration or well known as ph which is defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen-ion concentration; ph = -log 10 [H + ] (2.1) ph plays a main role for biological life in order to ensure they may survive in water bodies. The concentration range suitable for existence of most biological life is quite narrow and crucial (typically 6 to 9). At near surface runoff sources, the water is having a low-ph where the sources is include shallow groundwater draining acid and poorly-buffered coarse glacial drift deposits, and soil water from organicrich peat soil at lower altitudes (Jarvie et al., 2006). An extremely high concentration of hydrogen-ion in wastewater is hard to treat by biological methods and finally resulting alteration of natural waters if the concentration is not altered before discharge the wastewater effluent. The allowable ph range for treated effluents discharged to environment usually varies from 6.5 to 8.5 (Metcalf and Eddy, 2004). Carbon dioxide solubility is the key factor in influencing ph concentration of estuarine which is function of salinity and temperature. ph is usually be controlled by the mixing of seawater solutes with those in the freshwater inflow in estuaries. ph range between 8.1 and 8.3 usually occurred at surface seawater while river waters

35 18 usually contain a lower concentration of excess bases than seawater because fresh water inflow to estuaries is much less buffered than seawater normally. This is a reason why ph is varies in the less saline portion than near their mouth. Acidic mangrove deposits may be the result of several processes, including oxidation of reduced compounds (NH 3, H 2 S, and FeS 2 ) caused by translocation of O 2 by roots, bioturbating crabs, or the dominance of aerobic decomposition of organic matter which results in the net production of carbonic acid (Alongi et al., 1998) Seawater is a very stable buffering system containing excess bases, notably boric acid and borate salts, carbonic acid and carbonate. An indication of possible pollutant input such as releases of acids or caustic material, or higher phytoplankton concentration can be obtained by measuring ph in estuaries and coastal marine waters (USEPA, 2006) 2.6 Biological Parameter Biological parameters consist of fish, phytoplankton, zooplankton, macrobenthos and riverbank vegetation as follows; Fish The abundance and health of fish will show the healthy of water bodies because fish are good indicators of ecological health. In estuarine and marine communities, fish is an essential component in term of their recreational, economic, ecological and aesthetic roles. The characteristic of fish make them the most chosen biological parameter such as follow; they are very sensitive to most habitat disturbance; sensitive fish may avoid stressful environments since they are mobile; they also the important linkage between benthic and pelagic food webs; fish is good

36 19 indicator for long term effects because they are long-lived; and they may display physiological, morphological, or behavioral responses to stress. However, the use of fish still has their limitation include as follow; required large sampling effort to characterize the fish assemblage because it mobile; some fish are very habitat selective and their habitats may not be easily sampled; they may avoid stressful environments since they are mobile, hence it will reduce their exposure to toxic or other harmful condition; and fish shows a relatively high tropic level, and lower level organisms may provide an earlier indication of water quality problems (USEPA, 2006). In mangrove area, since food items associated with mangrove roots will be much more concentrated among pneumatophores, feeding become easier. Moreover, fish might also find better manoeuvrability in the two dimensional complexity of pneumatophores compared to the three-dimensional complexity of prop roots. In intertidal forest, small fish would gain predatory protection and this represented by their distribution pattern and low number of large carnivorous fish (Colombini et al., 1994). Since there are temporal variations in tide amplitude, local currents and weather condition factor, microhabitat need to be sampled simultaneously because the inland microhabitats have higher fish density and biomass compared to the seaward habitats. From fisheries perspective, during spring tide, fish and shrimp utilize large parts of the mangrove forest which implies the need for extensive forests (Ronnback et al., 1998). Catch rates may be affected due to consecutive sampling because previous study represent declining catches of large-sized fish on consecutive samplings, most likely due to the removal of resident fish (Vance et al., 1996) and night sampling should be avoided because Halliday and Young (1996) found that number and weight of the total fish catch was significantly lower in subsequent samplings. This is regards to Colombini et al. (1994) that assert some species is mainly active during the day and that during the night activity is almost completely interrupted. The total

37 20 abundance of fish may correlated to water quality which some of the species decreased whereas others increased (Fabricius et al., 2005) Zooplankton Zooplankton consists of two basic categories; holoplankton and meroplankton. Holoplankton will spend their whole life cycle as plankton and were characterized by broad physiological tolerance ranges, rapid growth rates, and behavioral patterns which promote their survival in estuarine and marine waters. The numerically dominant groups of the holoplankton are calanoid copepods, and the genus Acartia (A. tonsa and A. clausi) is the most abundant and widespread in estuaries. Acartia is able to withstand fresh to hypersaline waters and temperatures ranging from 0 o to 40 o C. While the meroplankton are much more diverse than the holoplankton and consist of the larvae of polychaetes, barnacles, mollusks, bryozoans, echinoderms, and tunicates as well as the eggs, larvae, and young of crustaceans and fish (USEPA, 2006). Hoai et al. (2006) observed that the zooplankton consumes phytoplankton and other zooplankton. The carnivorous fish consume zooplankton as well as the fishes of the same group. Since the phytoplankton, zooplankton and carnivorous fish having mortality, this will contribute to the detritus compartment. Some zooplankton mortality is due to self predation and also represents zooplankton gain; the result of such an interaction is a net loss of zooplankton, which goes to detritus. According to USEPA (2006), zooplankton will have rapid turnover which provides a quick response indicator to water quality interruption and the sorting and identification is fairly easy as compared to phytoplankton. However, since zooplankton has high mobility and turnover rate in water column, this will increase the difficulty of evaluating the correlation between cause and effect for this assemblage.

38 21 Many factors effects zooplankton population such as hydrologic processes, recruitment, food sources, temperature, predation (USEPA, 2006), and salinity fluctuations (Rougier et al., 2004). However, tidal exchange appears to be the most essential factor in controlling the size of zooplankton population while freshwater discharge strength will determine the distribution pattern of zooplankton. Within the estuaries, tides have a major influence to present of zooplankton communities in term of structure and density. Zooplankton abundance occurs after the flooding following the rains due to an increased quantity of detritus. This represented that zooplankton in mangrove estuaries is not directly linked to phytoplankton (Hoai et al., 2006) Phytoplankton Phytoplankton is a microscopic plant that have higher rate of productivity within the slower water rather in fast-moving water. Lakes and ponds are good examples of slow-moving lotic environment where more detritus and other nutrients to be picking up by microscopic organisms and the water bottom rather than be swept downstream. Although phytoplankton communities are large in lotic environments, they do not become as dense as they do in lentic environments. Fastmoving rivers and streams prevent much primary production due to fast currents and turbulence and therefore, low level consumers are also very meager (USEPA, 2006). Many estuaries and marine waters can be considered as plankton-dominated system. Plankton can implies eutrophication in estuarine environments because it is one of the earliest communities to respond due to nutrient concentration changes. Moreover, macroinvertebrates and fish will strongly effected upon plankton primary production changes and plankton is a valuable indicator of short term impact since they have generally short life cycles and rapid reproduction rate (USEPA, 2006). The activity and production of phytoplankton is generally influenced by present of iron, distance (Sarkar et al., 2005), nitrogen (Jones et al., 2000) and

39 22 seasonal fluctuations (Kitheka et al., 1996). Towards distance downstream, phytoplankton biomass and nutrient concentration decreased due to flushing and biotic uptake resulting in increased bioassay sensitivity to added nutrients (Costanzo et al., 2004). In most mangrove waterways, the rate of respiration and bacterioplankton growth is high (Alongi et al., 2003). In rainy season, nutrient is supplied to estuaries and resulting in increasing of phytoplankton production while in the dry season, it goes otherwise since of low nutrient supply and part of it is used to sustain the zooplankton biomass (Kitheka et al., 1996). Phytoplankton and suspended solids always represent higher concentration with respect to shrimp pond effluent (Jones et al., 2000). However, the abundance of plankton community and metabolisms is differing between surface and near-bottom waters and between high and low tides which heavy boat traffic and daily harvesting of mudflats cockles disturb and mix river bed with overlying waters and river banks erosion (Alongi et al., 2003) Benthos The benthic infauna have long been used for water quality assessments because of their tendency to be more sedentary and thus more reliable site indicators over time compared to fish and plankton. The dominant benthic species are subjected to emersion degree (Alongi, 1986), salinity, redox potential (Zettler et al., 2007; Dutrieux et al., 1988), granulometry, nutrient, microalgae (Chapman and Tolhurst, 2006; Bouillon et al., 2002), topography, hydrodynamic conditions, water turbidity presence or absence of sharp temperature stratification, water exchange patterns (Carlos and Marin, 2006) and carbohydrate (Lee, 1999).

40 23 Beside, whether changes could change the benthos species composition and distribution after study conducted a gap of nearly 35 years (Raut et al, 2004). However, variation in densities of mostly benthic taxa were related to habitat not time (Sheridan, 1996) and patterns in benthos among different habitats in a mangrove forest were not strongly correlated with patterns in the sediments (Chapman and Tolhurst, 2006). Alfaro (2004) found that the abundances of dominant taxa were generally consistent among sampling events. The alteration of benthic communities is affected by pollution tolerant of estuaries. For example, in Mahakam delta (East Kalimantan, Indonesia), the average biomass per station of benthic in estuaries mangrove is very much weaker in a polluted than in a non-polluted area. Hence, this organism appears to be suitable pollution indicator and need extreme pollution to eliminate this species (Dutrieux et al., 1988). Ahsen et al (2006) supported that distributions of species clearly reflected the level of organic pollution at the estuary. However, the negative finding was obtained by Schiff and Bay (2003) where, even though changes in sediment texture, organic content, and an increase in sediment contamination were observed at the Ballona Creek, California which is highly urbanized with 83 percent of the watershed is developed and comprised of predominantly residential land use, there was little or no alteration to the benthic communities. Many different habitats are contained in mangrove forest with diverse macrobenthic fauna living on or in the sediment in different habitats. The degradation of organic matter in mangrove area is rely on the presence of mangrove tress and crab fauna by increased the benthic metabolism (Nielsen et al., 2002). But Lee (1999) suggests that high concentrations of tannins may obstruct colonization by the macrobenthos rather than mangrove organic matter which not necessarily result in enhancement effects on marine benthos. Epibenthic communities in mangrove are strongly dependent on tidal which greater tidal amplitudes and increased tidal current velocities will transport mangrove detritus many faunal taxa into embayment (Alongi, 1986). It is known that the leaf detritus from mangroves contributes a major energy input into higher trophic levels (Ray et al., 2005). But according to finding by Bouillon et al. (2002) there is no

41 24 evidence for a trophic role of mangrove litter in sustaining subtidal benthic and pelagic invertebrate communities in adjacent aquatic systems. Mangrove habitats have the lowest density and biodiversity compared to seagrass beds that had the highest number of individuals and taxa. This is regard to significant difference in their community associations and interactions (Alfaro, 2004). Comparisons of benthic organisms between mangrove, seagrass, and non-vegetated habitats in other estuarine systems throughout the world report mixed results (Schiff and Bay, 2003; Nielsen et al., 2002; Sheridan, 1997) Mangrove Mangrove estuarine ecosystems are found at the interface between land and sea in the tropical and subtropical regions (Ray et al., 2005; Hoai et al., 2006) with conditions of high salinity, extreme tides, strong winds, high temperatures and muddy, and anaerobic soils (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). Mangrove always described as multiuse vegetation where from roots, trunk, branches and leave, every single thing associated with mangrove are island of habitat. They may attract rich epifaunal communities including bacteria, fungi, macroalgae and invertebrates. Other groups of organisms as well as for some species of crab are host in their aerial roots, trunks, leaves and branches as shown in Figure 2.1. Nevertheless, insects, reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals flourish in the habitat and contribute to its unique character. Figure 2.1 : Common crab in mangrove swamps-porcelain Fiddler (Uca annulipes) (Vincent, 2007)

42 25 Malaysian mangrove have redox level within the same range which rarely more negative than 2100 mv and often greater than 0 mv. While ph value often less than 6.5 and implies that the soil of most forest are acidic (Alongi et al., 1998). In mangrove habitat, nutrients such as NO 3 and PO 4 were consistently higher rather than in seawater (Hashim et al., 2005) and they utilize nutrients from interstitial pore-water within the sediment, not directly from the water column (Costanzo et al., 2004). Productivity and physical structure are important variables of mangrove quality. The better the mangrove cover, the better the performance of ecological processes and so of environmental functions. Mangrove quality in term of productivity is mangrove ecosystems offer a habitat with abundant food for temporary residents such as juvenile aquatic species. While in term of physical structure, the quiet environment contributes to habitat, particularly for juvenile aquatic species which provides a hiding place against predators, facilitates sediment control and mitigates against flooding and extreme conditions associated with their above-ground root systems and its structural complexity (Gilbert and Janssen 1996; Cheevaporn and Menasveta 2003; Nagelkerken et al., 1999; Alfaro, 2004; Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). Figure 2.2 shows a mangrove props roots that acts as hiding place for juvenile fish. Figure 2.2: Mangrove roots that act as home and hiding place for juvenile fish against predator

43 26 Hoai et al. (2006) were proved by measurement of wave forces and modeling of fluid dynamics and found out that the tree vegetation may reduce wave amplitude and energy. Analytical model shows that 30 trees from 100 m 2 in a 100m wide belt may reduce the maximum tsunami flow pressure by more than 90 percent. Forest age will affect the organic carbon oxidation rate in mangrove sediments. Age of mangrove can be divided into two which are mature (60 years and more) and young (2 to 12 years) trees. Sediment becomes less inundate because it more compacted in mature mangrove area. The abundance and diversity of infauna also undergo declination as well as reduction of sulfate. While in younger mangrove area, the total macrofaunal abundance is remain similar and the ability of nitrogen and phosphorus uptake is increasing due to aerobic and suboxic role and the presence of large numbers of surface-living (Morrisey et al., 2001; Alongi et al., 1998). Human activities have been the primary cause of mangrove loss. Aquaculture such as conversion to shrimp ponds and fish pond (Cheevaporn and Menasveta 2003; Alongi et al., 1999), industrial effluent that contributes to heavy metal contaminant in the sediment, anthropogenic influences (John and Lawson, 1990) and lubricating oils (Garrity et al., 1994; Zhang et al., 2006) would be the main supporter to destruction of mangrove habitat. Different geographical locations had different heavy metal concentrations, depending on the degree of anthropogenic pollution (Tam and Wong, 2000). Although mangrove have the ability in controlling the mobility of heavy metals (Silva et al., 2006) with respect to the abundance type of microorganisms which clean up the waste materials (Hashim et al., 2005), they still have tolerant limitation and continuously decline time by time with reduction of 1 percent per year in many developing countries (Alongi et al., 1999). In Thailand, the existing mangrove forest has decreased more than 50% in the past 32 years (Cheevaporn and Menasveta 2003) and based on study made by Bayen et al. (2004), less than 0.5 percent of Singapore s total land area are still covered by mangroves compared to approximate 13 percent in 1820.

44 River Classification and Pollutant Status Water Quality Index (WQI) as shown in Table 2.1 is the most important criteria in order to determine water quality in particular water bodies and limit to freshwater or river only. DO, BOD, COD, AN, SS and ph are common parameters that use in determining WQI. River classification for each parameter can be measured by using Table 2.2. The percentage of entire parameters will be evaluated and being determine which classes are they in to. Table 2.1: Water Quality Index (WQI) (DOE, 1986) WQI Range Pollution Degree < 31.0 Severely Polluted Slightly Polluted Moderate Clean > 92.7 Very Clean Table 2.2: Department of Enviroments Water Quality Index Standard (DOE, 1986) Parameter Unit Class I II III IV V Ammoniacal mg/l < > 2.7 Nitrogen BOD mg/l < > 12 COD mg/l < > 100 DO mg/l > < 1 ph - > < 5 > 5 Suspended Solids mg/l < > 300 Water Quality Index > < 31.0 Degree of river classifications that had been recommended is very clean, clean, moderate, slightly polluted and severely polluted. Before WQI is determined, Table 2.3 needs to be revised in order to evaluate parameters subindex. According to Department of Environment (1986), WQI was summarizing from Interim National Water Quality Standard (INWQS) for Malaysia as shown in Table 2.4.

45 28 Table 2.3: Parameter Subindex DOE-WQI (DOE, 1986) Parameter Value Subindex equation (SI) COD If X = < 20 SICOD = X If X > 20 SICOD = 103 x [E] X X BOD If X = <5 SIBOD = X If X >5 SIBOD = 108 x [E] X 0.1X AN If X = < 0.3 SIAN = X If 0.3 < X < 4 SIAN = 94 x [E] X 5(X-2) If X = > 4 SIAN = 0 SS If X = < 100 SISS = 97.5 x [E] X + 0.7X If 100 < X < 1000 SISS = 71 x [E] X 0.015X If X= > 1000 SISS = 0 ph If X < 5.5 SIpH = X X 2 If 5.5 = < X < 7 SIpH = X 6.67X 2 If 7 = < X <8.75 SIpH = X 6.05X 2 If X = > 8.75 SIpH = X X 2 DO X = DO (mg/l) * If X = < 8 SIDO = 0 If 8 > X SIDO = X X 3 WQI = (0.22 * SIDO) + (0.19 * SIBOD) + (0.16 * SICOD) + (0.15 * SIAN) +(0.16 * SISS) + (0.12 *SIpH) 2.2 Note: (1) X is concentration of parameter in unit mg/l, except for ph and DO (2) x is symbol of multiply (3) SIDO, SIBOD, SICOD, SIAN, SISS and SIpH are the Sub Index (SI) of the respective water quality parameters which isused to calculate the Water Quality Index (WQI).

46 29 Table 2.4: Interim National Water Quality Standard for Malaysia (INWQS) with related of water quality parameter (DOE, 1986) Parameter Units Class Ammoniacal Nitrogen I IIA IIB III IV V mg/l > 2.7 BOD mg/l > 12 COD mg/l > 100 DO mg/l < 3 < 1 ph Color TCU Conductivity µmhos/cm Floating N N N Odour N N N Salinity ppt Taste N N Total Dissolved Solids Total Suspended Solids mg/l mg/l > 300 Temperature C - Normal±2 - Normal±2 - - Turbidity NTU E. Coli. Coloni/100ml (2000) ε 5000 (2000) ε - Total Coliform Coloni/100ml > Class I represents water body of excellent quality. Standards are set for the conservation of natural environment in its undisturbed state. Water bodies such as those in the national park areas, fountainheads, and in high land and undisturbed areas come under this category where strictly no discharge of any kind is permitted. Water bodies in this category meet the most stringent requirements for human health and aquatic life protection. Class II A represents water bodies of good quality. Most existing raw water supply sources come under this category. In practice, no body contact activity is

47 30 allowed in this water for prevention of probable human pathogens. There is a need to introduce another class for water bodies not used for water supply but of similar quality which may be referred to as Class IIB. The determination of Class IIB standard is based on criteria for recreational use and protection of sensitive aquatic species. Class III is defined with the primary objective of protecting common and moderately tolerant aquatic species of economic value. Water under this classification may be used for water supply with extensive/advance treatment. This class of water is also defined to suit livestock drinking needs. Class IV defines water quality required for major agricultural irrigation activities which may not cover minor applications to sensitive crops and finally Class V represents other waters which do not meet any of the above uses. 2.8 River Classification Based on Biological Indicator River classification based on biological assessment can be carried out towards the rivers ecology criterion. The assessment of biological variety in term of river management is mostly use Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H ) that measures both richness and evenness of biodiversity (USEPA, 1980). According to Nor Azman Kasan (2006), there is significant correlation between water quality and algae population by compared via WQI and Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H ). The equation for the index is; n g Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H ) = - Pi ln Pi (2.3) i = 1 With n g represent number of genera, Pi is ratio to each genara and ln is log 10. According to Malaysian Water Quality Classification, river s class can be determined into five categories; Class I, Class II, Class III, Class IV and Class V based on H

48 31 value that had been evaluated (UM-DOE, 1986, Malaysia, 1990-Phase II) as shown in Table 2.5. Table 2.5: Water Quality Determination based on Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (UM-DOE, 1986) Shannon-Weiner Diversity Classification Water Quality Index, H > 3.73 I Very Clean II Clean III Moderate Pollution IV Slightly Pollution V Severely Pollution

49 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter explains on the few phases used from the beginning to the final stage in order to achieve the objectives of this study. Before fieldwork is carried out, there are a few scopes and methodology inflows that need to follow to ensure the information is well gain in order to make study easier in term of data assemblages and editing. 3.2 Literature Review Information related to Sungai Batu Pahat is gathered from variety sources including maps, internet, books, journal, news articles, magazine, and thesis book from previous student. This source is catered at Perpustakaan Sultanah Zanariah (PSZ), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) and Pusat Sumber Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam (FKA), UTM. Beside, interviewing with expert, local communities, fisherman and related authorities such as Department of Forestry, and Deparment of Environment (DOE) also involved.

50 Determine the Parameter Involved Parameters that involved in this study are divided into two which are Water Quality Index (WQI) and biodiversity parameters. WQI consist of commonly six parameter which are Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Suspended Solids (SS), acidic and alkalinity (ph) and Nitrogen-Ammonia (NH 3 -N). While biodiversity comprise of fishes, zooplankton, phytoplankton, benthos and riverbank vegetation. 3.4 Sampling Method The sampling station for both parameters was determined by using topography map with serial number DNMM 6102 Edition 1-PPNM Sheet 168a & c and was categorized into three portions of stream which is upstream, middle stream and downstream as shown in Figure 3.2. At the middle stream, 3 sampling point was choosen, while at the upstream and downstream, 2 sampling point for each. GPS (Geographical Positioning System) Etrex Summit model as shown in Figure 3.1 was used to determine each coordinate of water quality stations. Figure 3.1: Geographical Positioning System was used to determine coordinate and distance

51 34 Water quality parameter was taken three times within August and September 2006 which is three times during high tide and three times during low tide. While for biodiversity parameter was taken twice on August and September 2006 at five station as shown in Figure 3.2 which is two times during high tide and two times during low tide but for riverbank vegetation, only one shot coordinate sampling because no alteration was observe within sampling events. Figure 3.3, Figure 3.4 and Figure 3.5 shows upstream, middlestream and downstream of sampling station respectively. Figure 3.6 shows riverbank vegetation during high tide while Figure 3.7 shows low tide s scene of riverbank vegetation. UPSTREAM MIDDLE STREAM DOWNSTREAM Figure 3.2: Portions of Water Quality Sampling Station at Sungai Batu Pahat

52 35 Figure 3.3: Upstream of Sungai Batu Pahat. Patches of Nypa habitat are abundance at the upstream because of low salinity water compared to seaward. Water seems to be cleaner from turbidity Figure 3.4: A lot of shipping activity occurred at the middle stream of the estuary, resulting disturbance of biodiversity and riverbank vegetation as well as water quality depletion

53 36 Figure 3.5: Downstream of Sungai Batu Pahat is adjacent to coastal water that have wide opening. At downstream, the land are fully covered by riverbank vegetation especially mangrove in order to protect against tsunami Figure 3.6: Sungai Batu Pahat during high tide. Fresh water from the river is mixing with coastal water and abundance of fish will take this opportunity to breed at vegetations roots

54 37 Figure 3.7: During low tide, the roots of vegetation were clearly seen and this is the time for adult fish go to open sea because, water from estuary was flowing seaward during this period Water Quality Sampling In-situ parameter such as ph and DO was determined by using Multi- Parameter Analyzer-Consort C535 (Figure 3.8) and 55-YSI Dissolved Oxygen Meter (Figure 3.9) respectively. While the rest of parameter will be analysis at laboratory by taken water sample into 2 liter polyethylene bottle which was clean according to Standard Method APHA 4500-P. The water sample then being preserved by put a few drops of nitrite acid (H-NH 3 ) and stored at 4 C cold room as soon as BOD analysis carried out in order to minimize biological activities in the water. Figure 3.8: Multi-Parameter Analyzer-Consort C535 that had been used to determine ph level on surface water of Sungai Batu Pahat

55 38 Figure 3.9: 55-YSI Dissolved Oxygen Meter was used in order to get dissolved oxygen concentration in unit mg/l on surface water Fisheries Sampling Fishes was caught using cast net (Figure 3.10) and trammel net (Figure 3.11) within August and September, 2006 which is 2 times during neap high tide and 2 times during low tide to high tide. Cast net was used with opening diameter approximately 2.43 m (8 feet) and mesh size is 2.54 cm (1 inch). Besides, 2 trammel net was used with 3 layers and each layer has of length 100m. Each trammel net has 2 outside layer with mesh size cm (4 inch) and 1 inside layer with mesh size 3.81 cm (1.5 inch). Sampling was carried out 5 times using trammel net and 30 times using cast net and let it on water column for about 30 minutes before identified the fish species, measure fish length and weight, and evaluate total fish that had been caught. Figure 3.10: Cast net had been used thirty (30) times for fish sampling

56 39 Figure 3.11: Trammel net was used for five (5) times at certain part of the river where drift net using is allowed Phytoplankton Phytoplankton had been sampled at five stations as shown in Figure 3.1. Water samples were sampled at 0.5m depth from the water surface by using a Van Dorn Sampler (4.2L) as shown in Figure For each replicate, water was sampled three times and sieved through the 10µm mesh size to concentrate the phytoplankton samples. The remains of plankton net cod-end were then preserved with 10% of buffered formaldehyde for laboratory analysis. Figure 3.12: Water sampling using Van Dorn Sampler in order to identify phytoplankton assemblages

57 40 At the laboratory, phytoplankton samples were pipette onto the Sedgewick Rafter cell and examined under a compound microscope. The phytoplankton was identified to genus level where possible and photo of dominated phytoplankton species within Sungai Batu Pahat can be seen at Appendix E Zooplankton Plankton net with 30cm mouth diameter and 147µm mesh and a calibrated flowmeter was used to sample zooplankton at 0.5m depth (Holguin et al., 2005; Prepas and Charette, 2003; Lampman and Makarewicz,1999; Johannsson et al., 1986) from the water surface as shown in Figure The samples were collected into the plankton bottle and preserved with 10% of buffered formaldehyde for laboratory analysis. Figure 3.13: Zooplankton had been caught using plankton net at 0.5m depth from the water surface At the laboratory, zooplankton samples were sieved through 53µm Endecott sieve using running tap water. Particles with sizes smaller than 53µm had been removed. The zooplankton fraction was transferred onto pre-weighed steel gauze and excess moisture was absorbed by blotting towel.

58 41 According to Rougier et al. (2004), 150 mm mesh size is using for mesozooplankton capture and the other with a 40 mm mesh size is for microzooplankton capture including rotifers. Wet weight was measured to 2 decimal points. All samples were then kept separately in storage bottle with 85% alcohol for subsequent examination. For enumeration and identification purposes zooplankton samples was subsampled by using a Stempel pipette and transfer onto a Sedgewick-Rafter cell. Zooplankton density was determined by counting the zooplankton individuals in the cell. Sample was split into two or more times if sample was large by using a Folsom plankton splitter Macrobenthos Macrobenthos samples were collected from upstream of the study area to adjacent coastal water as shown in Figure 3.2. Figure 3.14 shows an Ekman grab sampler that used to collect sediment. The sediment was sieved through 500µm Endecott sieve on board. The entire materials on sieve were collected into a plastic bag and preserved with 10% of buffered formaldehyde for laboratory analysis. Figure 3.14: Ekman grab sampler that used to identify benthic animals with 500µm Endecott sieve on board

59 42 At the laboratory, the materials in the plastic bag were poured onto an enamel tray. The benthic animals were sorted and identified using a binocular microscope. Plant debris and shell materials were also recorded Riverbank Vegetation Analysis Coordinate along the river via boat and road was taken approximate every 10 meter in order to measure the riverbank area that still covered by vegetation including mangrove, nypa and secondary shrubs using GPS. With coordinate data collection, area of vegetation then is calculated using Google Earth Pro. However, the results only show an approximate value, not the actual one which is align to this study objective which to what extent the biodiversity may survive with the presence of riverbank vegetation beside rely on water quality alone. Type of existing vegetation along the river was given by Department of Forestry Johor Tengah. Interview session with forestry personel, was carried out to gain related information. 3.5 Chemical Analysis There are important equipments that being used during chemical analysis including beaker 2000 ml, measurement cylinder 10 ml, 25 ml, 100 ml, and 1000 ml as well as 10 ml pipette which was cleaned comply to Standard Methods APHA 4500-P. The whole equipments and tools was provided by Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM).

60 Concentration Measurement Of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD 5 ) To determine BOD 5, Standard Method APHA 5210-B is using to evaluate dissolved oxygen that contain in water sample Concentration Measurement Of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) COD value was evaluated by HACH Model DR/4000 Spectrometer which comply to Standard Methods APHA 5220-C where water sample being reflux using COD Reactor Model HACH Concentration Measurement Of Nitrogen-Ammonia ((NH 3 -N) Standard Method APHA 4500-NH3-BC was used to evaluate Nitrogen- Ammonia s (NH 3 -N) value through HACH model DR/4000 Spectrometer which created by HACH Company, Loveland, Colorado, USA Measurement of Suspended Solids (SS) For Suspended Solids measurement, all procedures was complied to Standard Methods APHA 2540-D 3.6 Data Analysis For physicochemical analysis, Water Quality Index (WQI) and Interim Water Quality Standard (INWQS) provided by Department of Environment (DOE) were

61 44 referred to identify the status and classification of Sungai Batu Pahat. The result will be represented as graph form, utilize Microsoft Excel and CurveExpert software and the profile of each parameter was determined. Biodiversity data were compared to previous related studies in order to identify the characteristic and diet of species in general. The relationship between physicochemical parameter and biodiversity parameter was examined such as between WQI and biodiversity population, WQI and vegetation habitat, as well as between biodiversity population and vegetation habitat.

62 CHAPTER IV RESULT AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Introduction It is well known those mangroves are the salt tolerant forest ecosystems found in tropical and sub-tropical intertidal regions of the world. They consist of swamps, forest-land and water-spread areas. These forest ecosystems support marine fisheries and protect the coastal zone, thus helping the coastal environment and economy. These ecosystems are biologically productive, but ecologically sensitive. A lot of factors that contribute to water quality degradation of Sungai Batu Pahat such as population growth and accompanying land use changes. Sungai Batu Pahat is situated at Bandar Penggaram and most of the riverbank had altered into resident area, urban area and shipping activities. It is important to rehabilitate the water quality within Sungai Batu Pahat because it supports fisheries as protein diet and livelihood for community nearby as well as for biological community such as otter and water birds. As mention before in literature review, Sungai Batu Pahat received a visit from threatened bird s species-one species of stork, the Lesser Adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus). Thus, it is important to identify the water quality status of the river to ensure fish survival as well as the quality of food for them (planktonic life and benthic macroinvertebrates). Riverbank vegetation especially mangrove plays a main role in order to maintain the quality food for fish survival. Therefore, the existing riverbank vegetation should be protected from further degradation.

63 Land Use Analysis Batu Pahat can be characterized as agricultural land which is covers 83% of the total area of Batu Pahat as shown in Table 4.1 followed by forestry with 5.62% of Batu Pahat. Residential area only covers 3.43% with 6,444 ha and other related land uses are commercial area, institutional and facilities, open space and recreational area, and industrial area. However, water bodies at Batu Pahat merely 1.54% or 2,887 ha from total area of Batu Pahat and it is not impossible if quality of water bodies at Batu Pahat were interrupted by land use activities especially from agriculture run off. Table 4.1: Distribution of exiting land use in Batu Pahat (MPBP, 2002) Land Use Hectare Percent (%) Agricultural Area 156, Forestry 10, Water body 2, Residential Area 6, Business Area Industrial Area Institutional and Facilities 1, Open Space and Recreational 1, Reserve land 4, Total 187, The land use activities around Batu Pahat seem to be a major contributor in determining the water quality of Sungai Batu Pahat. According to Majlis Perbandaran Batu Pahat (MPBP, 2002), there is 525 gazetted villages and villagecluster at Batu Pahat district where smaller villages were annexed to their bigger immediate neighbors for the purpose of administration. The land use in Batu Pahat consists of 2 main areas; town centre and the rural areas. In town centre, most of the land uses are industrial, commercial and residential area while agricultural activities and small village are located at the rural area.

64 47 From actual observation, the river banks of Sungai Batu Pahat consist mostly of mangroves at downstream but dominated by nypa at upstream due to low salinity and soft bottom sediment. Besides that, Batu Pahat also has primary and secondary forest as well as other vacant land which consist mostly of bushes, shrubs and grass. Batu Pahat tends to be very susceptible to flood because of its low lying land and rapid rising tides. Table 4.2 shows the subdistrict of Batu Pahat which consist of 14 mukim (subdistricts) and involved total area of 187,702 hectares in Batu Pahat. From the table, we can see that the biggest sub district is Tanjung Semberong which covers a total area of % of Batu Pahat while the smallest sub district is Peserai which covers an area of only 1812 hectares which is 0.97 % of Batu Pahat. Table 4.2: List of subdistricts in Batu Pahat (MPBP, 2002) Subdistricts Measure km 2 Acre Hectare Percentage (%) Lubok 41 10,240 4, Bagan 39 9,600 3, Peserai 18 4,480 1, Simpang Kiri 98 24,320 9, Simpang Kanan ,720 12, Linau ,960 10, Tanjung Semberong ,120 34, Sri Gading ,360 19, Minyak Beku ,720 12, Kampung Bahru 67 16,640 6, Sungai Punggor 88 21,760 8, Sungai Kluang 98 24,320 9, Chaah Bahru ,520 30, Sri Medan ,960 23, Total , ,

65 Residential It is well known that over population is the major contributor to degradation of water quality (Franca et al., 2005; Smith, 2004; Butcher et al., 2003; Lin et al., 2006). Based on survey made by Majlis Perbandaran Batu Pahat (MPBP, 2002), nowadays, it is estimated that approximately 400, 000 residents are living in Batu Pahat with Simpang Kanan being the most dense subdistrict in Batu Pahat with 139, 640 people while the least populated is Bagan with only 4, 692 people. The town itself has 140, 000 local resident and most houses in this town are single or double storey terrace houses as well as wooden houses. Majority of people living along Sungai Batu Pahat dump solid waste as well as sewage directly into water bodies with respect to lack or no proper sewage treatment system and solid waste collection system. Due to uncontrolled discharge of organic matter in estuaries regions, the water bodies will lead to anoxic condition (Desa et al., 2005). Figure 4.1 shows some squatters which are located by the river. They also create their own dumping ground nearby the river that may causes leachate leaching to estuaries during rainy days resulting depletion of water quality. Figure 4.2 shows dumping ground made by local communities Figure 4.1: Squatter area located by the river with improper sewage treatment and solid waste collection system

66 49 Figure 4.2: Dumping area that made by local resident and resulting poor view and bad odour Beside as dumping area, Sungai Batu Pahat also acts as route for them to get to town that located just the other side of the river. It is easier to cross over the river by boat rather than use road which take a long period because of traffic jam. Most of the people here have lived here for a long time and likes it here because it is a complete town with all the basic facilities and it is also very convenient to get around town Agricultural and Farming Batu Pahat is mostly covered by agriculture activities and also has a wide area of primary forest which is known as Hutan Simpan Gunung Banang. Riverbank vegetation that exists along Sungai Batu Pahat will be discussing detail in other sub topic. Palm oil plantation, rubber plantation and coconut plantation are identified as the main agricultural activities in Batu Pahat. Discussing about agriculture, we could never escape from the chemical substance used for plantation growth such as insecticide, pesticides and fertilizers which might contribute to high amounts of phosphate in the estuaries.

67 50 Non point sources of nutrients (from agricultural activities, fossil-fuel combustion, and animal feeding operations) are often of greater concern than point sources because they are larger and more difficult to control (Thomas, 2004). The chemical substance will released abundance into estuaries especially during rainy days which carried by the storm water runoff as well as animal manure from farming activities that also flow with the runoff. All these activities will contribute to high content of ammonia nitrogen in the river Commercial Commercial area is located at the centre city of Batu Pahat and would be the contributor to river pollution. Human activities such as restaurants, car and motor services, wet market, hospital and clinics may release a lot of pollutant whether like it or not. Market and restaurant contribute much organic substance into the water bodies. Figure 4.3: Trade activities along Sungai Batu Pahat that trades goods and groceries such as logs and timbers Figure 4.3 shows a barter-trade jetty handling import and export of goods locally and Indonesia that located along Sungai Batu Pahat. As we can seen from this figure, the port is unsystematically management and messy as well as busier since the decreasing of such trades in Singapore ports (Low, 2007). Beside oil

68 51 spillage from ships during loading and unloading goods, workers also tend to dump waste into the estuaries and increased the chances for water quality to be deteriorated Industrial Industrial activities are considered as point sources that released less essential nutrient than non point sources (Sarkar et al., 2005; Thomas, 2004; Alongi et al., 1998; Simpson and Pedini, 1985). In Batu Pahat, the main industrial activity is manufacturing of textile with 40% of total textile industry in Malaysia especially the wet processing plants. This could due to its strategic location for industrial growth with easy access. Malaysian Knitting Manufacturers Association (MKMA, 1996) estimated that about 15 out of 40 plants are located in Batu Pahat and most of them are found at the upstream of Sungai Batu Pahat. Textile manufacturing is the major income for resident living here, but improper management of wastewater plant there will lead to heavy metal contaminant discharged to Sungai Batu Pahat especially the dye used which may leave a permanent stain to the river and also resulting high turbidity, thus light cannot penetrate deep beneath the surface. Based on study made by Rojali Othman (1995), Batu Pahat has rubber processing factory which process natural latex and is owned by Berjaya Group. Unfortunately, most of the factories have improper effluent treatment system and this will make water quality become worst and only tolerant species of fish may survive in Sungai Batu Pahat. Wood, brick, steel and other building materials manufacturing are identified at Batu Pahat region together with sago, rubber, palm oil processing, furniture, and food production. These activities will create abundance of organic substance which are not biodegradable as well as chemical and toxic waste that finally discharged into water column.

69 52 Another industrial activity that observed at Batu Pahat is quarries with about 7 quarries there such as Batu Pahat Quarry, Lian Huat Granite Quarry, Asia Quarry, Medan Quarry and Hanson Quarry. Quarries also pose serious threat to water quality due to its high release of suspended solids and interrupt sediment communities by fallen of gravel onto estuaries from barges carrying gravel. Figure 4.4 shows one of the quarries by the river that potentially become the major contributor to degradation of water quality at Sungai Batu Pahat. Figure 4.4: Busy quarry activities during day time along Jalan Minyak Beku closed to Sungai Batu Pahat 4.3 Water Quality Analysis In Malaysia, there are six main water quality parameter that strongly recommended by Department of Environment (DOE) in order to classifying the status of particular water bodies. The parameters are dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammoniacal nitrogen (NH 3 -N), suspended solids (SS) and finally, alkalinity and acidity (ph). In this study, the water quality was analyzed between low tide and high tide along km length of the river.

70 53 Water quality were sampling three times for high tide and three times during low tide within August 2006 and September The result of each parameter is an average value of sampling frequency. Table 4.3 shows each parameter result during high tide while Table 4.4 shows low tide s water quality parameter result. From both of the table below, COD during low tide was higher than high tide due to abundance of inorganic effluent that discharged from land use activities while other parameters shows almost equal value. Table 4.3: Water quality parameter result during high tide Sampling Distance from Water Quality Index Parameter (mg/l), except for ph Station Station 1 DO BOD COD SS AN ph Table 4.4: Water quality parameter result during low tide Sampling Distance from Water Quality Index Parameter (mg/l), except for ph Station Station 1 DO BOD COD SS AN ph

71 54 After the concentration of each parameter was catered, Table 2.3 as shown in chapter II previously was used in determining the subindex of each parameter and finally the water quality index and its class were determined by using Table 2.1 and Table 2.2. Table 4.5 shows the result of subindex during high tide while during low tide as shown in Table 4.6. From the both of the table, it is obviously seen that, water quality during high tide much better rather than during low tide as consequence of mixing water that create high turbulence and gradient. Table 4.5: Water quality subindex parameters result during high tide Sampling Water Quality Subindex WQI Class Station SIDO SIBOD SICOD SISS SIAN SIpH III III IV III IV III III Table 4.6: Water quality subindex parameters result during low tide Sampling Water Quality Subindex WQI Class Station SIDO SIBOD SICOD SISS SIAN SIpH III IV IV IV IV IV III

72 Water Quality Index Analysis Water quality Index (WQI) shows a consistent classification with class III at upstream, class IV at middle stream and back to class III towards downstream for both high tide and low tide as shown in Figure 4.5. Class III represent that the river is still can support and protecting common and tolerant aquatic species while class IV defines that the water is suitable for only major agricultural irrigation activities. The fluctuation of class within study area was consequence of human activities along the river. There was significant different of WQI with respect to distance (p < 0.05) for both tide implying that water quality was influence by distance. According to DOE (2001) that the rivers in Malaysia were generally clean at the upstream and were either slightly polluted or polluted due to urban wastes and agricultural activities at the downstream. 80 high tide low tide 70 Resident Area Urban Area Barter-trade jetties Cleared Area CLASS III CLASS IV WQI UPSTREAM MIDDLE STREAM DOWNSTREAM Distance from first sampling point (km) Figure 4.5: Trend of water quality from upstream towards downstream during high tide and low tide where water quality was dropped to class IV at middle stream associated with nine potential tributaries that contribute pollutant to estuaries

73 56 However, the situation was differing for Sungai Batu Pahat. This was caused by human refuse which common at almost all mangrove estuaries of similar size and type in Malaysia. High suspended loads and high nutrient concentration was found at Southeast Asia in consequence of high rates of river runoff, shoreline erosion, resuspension, heavy boat traffic, agricultural and forest runoff, and dumping waste (Alongi et al., 2003). The source of water quality deteriorating towards middle stream is because of discharging from heavy boat traffic, quarry activities, and settlement activities at adjacent river. The major reason of depleting water quality at middle stream is it located at urban area (non-industrial area) that discharges effluent via drainage and tributaries. Anthropogenic effects are stronger at the estuaries since water circulation is much more limited than the coastal ecosystem (Ahsen et al., 2006). From observation, there were nine potential tributaries that contribute to decreasing of water quality at middle stream (average value of WQI is 51.0 and 41.7 for high tide and low tide, respectively). Clearance area for proposed development also the main contributors which release nutrient and heavy metals that supposed to uptake by mangrove into estuaries. Mangrove is recognize as controller of heavy metal mobility because of its varies clean up microorganisms (Silva et al., 2006; Hashim et al., 2005). It is well known that, for non-industrial area, the sources that likely to have is traffic emission and road runoff, city wastewater and biosolids used as fertilizer (Zhang et al., 2006). However, the upstream of study area shows slightly polluted with average value of water quality index (WQI) is 53.2 and 49.5 for high tide and low tide, respectively. It was due to agriculture runoff and road runoff. The upstream of the study area is not located exactly at the upstream of the estuaries but located at the upstream of new proposed development area that situated downstream of Sungai Batu Pahat. Thus, the water quality still hampered by local communities activities such as agricultural which mostly found at the upstream of Sungai batu Pahat. As well as the downstream of study area, the WQI shows class III which is slightly polluted. Downstream of Sungai Batu Pahat is at adjacent coastal water that has wide open to Straits of Melaka. According to Azrina et al. (2006), downstream being usually characterized by greater width, lower flow rate, and softer bottom.

74 57 This would be the strong reason, WQI at downstream has similar classification such upstream. As refer back to Figure 4.5, WQI during high tide was much better than low tide due to dilution of estuarine water. This is regards to water level that increased during high river flows that trap suspension from coastal water at inundation of mangrove swamps and forest. Rainy season and tidal pumping effects became the major factors influencing the water quality within the estuaries. During rainy season, suspended sediment from estuaries will supply to both mangrove forest and shelf and stocked it there temporarily. When the river discharge decrease and low tide occur, the suspended sediment is re-injected into the estuaries (Ahsen et al., 2006; Capo et al., 2005). From physical observation, during both high tide and low tide, there were still having rubbish, death plantation and animal, and lubricant oil floating at surface water as shown in Figure 4.6. The direction of those floating matter are dependent on tide which high tide, its goes upstream and during low tide it goes seaward. The other reason for this because of effluent discharging from human activities at riverbank is not depending on tide. Floating oil will remain stranded on aerial roots, stems and leaves after the tide ebbs, leading to oxygen deficiency and suffocation (Zhang et al., 2006). Figure 4.6: Rubbish that floating on surface water of Sungai Batu Pahat which carried by flow during ebbing time from upstream of the estuaries to coastal area

75 Water Quality Parameter Analysis Depending on water quality index (WQI) alone does not explain the real and actual contributor to deteriorating of water quality at Sungai Batu Pahat. Because of that, analysis of each parameter was insisted to carry out in order to identify either organic matter or inorganic matters that contribute the most of the WQI dropping to class IV at middle stream Dissolved Oxygen Generally, dissolved oxygen (DO) was increasing towards downstream for both tides as shown in Figure 4.7. At upstream, DO concentration during low tide was higher 19.57% as compared during high tide. It is due to freshwater discharge from Sungai Simpang Kiri and Sungai Simpang Kanan into estuaries that contain much Dissolved Oxygen. 7 6 high tide low tide 5 DO (mg/l) Distance from first sampling point (km) Figure 4.7: The fluctuation of dissolved oxygen concentration during high tide and low tide with respect to distance which is increased towards downstream

76 59 At distance of 2.5 km from station 1, DO concentration was dropped about 71.32% during low tide but increased during high tide with 1.33%. The DO concentration was continuously increased at length of 3.21 km and 4.42 km with 3.86 mg/l and 4.2 mg/l respectively during high tide but dropped to 3.3 mg/l at distance of 6.62 km because of effluent releasing from barter-trade jetties, quarry and cleared mangrove area such as solid waste, lubricant oils, granite and sediments. As well as during low tide, DO concentration was increased until reach to 6.26 km from station 1 with 1.37 mg/l (3.21 km), 2.13 mg/l (4.42 km) and 2.68 mg/l at 6.26 km of distance. After pass by 6.26 km from station 1, the concentration of dissolved oxygen was rapidly increased with 3.89 mg/l (7.78 km) to 6.61 mg/l (10.43 km) during high tide which is % increasing while 1.98 mg/l (7.78 km) to 5.89 mg/l (10.43 km) during low tide with % increasing. The rapid increasing of DO level towards downstream probably because of abundance of DO at coastal water which have wide-range of area with cooler water and high velocity (Thampanya et al., 2005). According to Smith (2004), Corbitt (1999) and Nor Azman Kassan (2006), cooler water has a higher saturation point for DO than warmer water and water that is flowing at higher velocities can hold more DO than slower water. Dissolve oxygen at Sungai Batu Pahat can be described as low DO as consequence of nutrient over-enrichment and become one of the most prominent stressor of estuarine and coastal aquatic biota. Low or no DO is well recognized as hypoxia or anoxia circumstance was closely associated with low shell fish production and massive fish kills in many systems (Weisse and Stadler, 2006; Donald et al., 2002) Biochemical Oxygen Demand Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is one of essential parameter in order to determine organic pollutant level as consequence of domestic wastes, agricultural

77 60 waste and anthropogenic inputs (Hoai et al., 2006; Hernandez-Romero et al., 2004). Figure 4.8 shows the profile of BOD concentration towards the adjacent coastal water. BOD concentration during high tide was increasing from 3.82 mg/l at station 1 to 8.61 mg/l at distance of 2.5 km. At distance of 3.21 km and onwards till km, BOD concentration was consistent with mg/l, mg/l, mg/l, 20.3 mg/l and mg/l respectively high tide low tide 20 BOD (mg/l) Distance from first sampling point (km) Figure 4.8: For both tides, BOD concentration was increased from upstream and constant as reach at distance 3.21 km to seawards due to human activities at middle stream and undisturbed mangrove area at downstream which is known as abundance organic matter contributor to water bodies While during low tide, BOD concentration also increase at upstream which is from 4.31 mg/l to 9.31 mg/l. The concentration of BOD also seem to be constant at distance 3.21 km till km with mg/l, mg/l, mg/l, mg/l and mg/l respectively. From the value obtained here, it can clearly see that, during low tide and high tide, organic loading is almost equal. The reason of consistency of BOD concentration probably due to fluctuation of DO concentrations.

78 61 From ANOVA analysis, there is significant different (p < 0.05) between DO and BOD with 95% confident levels. Meaning that, lower BOD concentration is directly related to increasing of DO level and vise versa. This phenomenon is common as identified in many previous studies (Metcalf and Eddy, 2004; Nor Azman Kasan, 2006; Peavy et al., 1986; Terbut, 1983). At middle stream which has busy human activities, BOD was increasing (at distance of 3.21 km to 6.26 km) because according to Lung (2001), squatters activities that release untreated sewage and food wastes directly into water bodies will finally increase the BOD concentration. However, towards downstream which is at shipping activities, clear area, and onwards, BOD was consistent due to widerange area and organic matters were well distributed because of mixing water and strong current by coastal water (Sholkovitz, 1985; Wang, 1978). The other reason was probably because of less organic matter discharged at middle stream but high non-biodegradable matter released as stated by previous study that industrial activities discharge a lot of non-biodegradable effluent into estuaries (Pekey, 2006; Chen et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2006; Franca et al., 2005; Shtiza et al., 2004; Thévenot et al., 2003; Ashkan, 2000). Even though there were less land use activities at downstream with no potential pollutant contributor tributaries, but the BOD concentration still higher. The organic matter may be provided by mangrove area along the river as well as decaying of aquatic plantation such as phytoplankton (Hoai et al., 2006; Ahsen et al., 2006; Delizo et al., 2005; Alongi et al., 2001; Kitheka et al., 1996; Rao et al., 1982) Chemical Oxygen Demand COD refer to the quantity of oxygen required to oxidize a complete organic substance chemically to form Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) and water (H 2 O). The deteriorating of water quality can be measured with high value of COD and lower value of COD represents the other way around. Results in Figure 4.9 shows that the average value during high tide for upstream was 60.5 mg/l, at downstream the

79 62 concentration increased with 74.0 mg/l and 152 mg/l towards downstream whereby during low tide, COD value was much higher than high tide with 84.5 mg/l (upstream), mg/l (middle stream) and 420 mg/l (downstream). It was obviously seen that, at middle stream, which has a lot of human activities such as commercial area, industrial area and settlement area, the COD concentration was increased rapidly during low tide due to non-biodegradable discharged. While the value of COD is generally constant from upstream towards the adjacent coastal water during high tide due of waters mixing between marine water and freshwater resulting dilution. However, at downstream, COD is increasing due to high organic and inorganic substance that imported from Straits of Melaka water as well as from mangrove swamps that well recognized with abundance of organic matter. In tropical coastal-wetland in Southern Mexico, the COD value was high associated with mangrove enriched organic matter (Sarkar et al., 2005; Hernandez-Romero et al., 2004) high tide low tide COD (mg/l) Distance from first sampling point (km) Figure 4.9: COD concentration that consistent seaward for high tide because of dilution from coastal water. However, during low tide, COD was increased at middle stream due to leaching of organic matter and inorganic matter from mangrove area, urban area, as well as decaying of aquatic plants

80 Ammoniacal Nitrogen The major sources of ammoniacal nitrogen are herbicide, pesticide and fertilizer from agricultural and farming activities, detergent from diurnal resident activities and animal manure from pig farm. At upstream, the average value of NH 3 - N was 1.11 mg/l as well as at middle stream, but at downstream the value decrease to 0.60 mg/l during high tide. During low tide, NH 3 -N value was 1.16 mg/l at upstream, drop to 0.97 mg/l at middle stream and continuous decreasing at downstream as shown in Figure high tide low tide 1 NH 3 -N (mg/l) Distance from first sampling point (km) Figure 4.10: Ammoniacal nitrogen decreasing seawards for high tide and low tide due to increasing of dissolved oxygen concentration The decreasing concentration of NH 3 -N seawards probably because of increasing DO concentration. During day, aquatic plant add DO to the water when photosynthesis is occurring and oxygen is consumed during night time respiration (Jack, 2006). NH 3 -N level was decrease as DO concentration increase (Jack, 2006; Sarkar et al., 2005; Simpson and Pedini, 1985).

81 64 The higher level of NH 3 -N at distance of 2.5 km during both tides was caused by domestic waste and untreated sewage discharged from squatters area and urban area directly to water column. The other reason associated to decreasing of NH 3 -N towards downstream was nutrient uptake by phytoplankton growth. According to Jack (2006), there is a direct relationship between fertilizer applications and riverine nutrient fluxes which is when these nutrient supplies reach lower rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters, they are available for phytoplankton uptake and growth Suspended Solids During high tide, suspended solids was slightly increase at upstream and middle stream as shown in Figure 4.11 with average value of 8.4 mg/l and 9.1 mg/l respectively. But at downstream, the SS value rapidly increases to mg/l probably associated to adjacent coastal water that has abundance of suspended solids imported from Straits of Melaka during high tide as well as abundance of fine particles and nutrients from undisturbed mangrove swamps at downstream (Ray et al., 2005; Hoai et al., 2006). Besides, diurnal boats and ships traffics may increased suspended solids to water column especially at middle stream and downstream by create a wave and caused riverbank erosion. During low tide, the SS concentration is much higher than during high tide at upstream and middle stream because according to Khiteka et al. (1996) the outgoing low tides leach nutrients from the mangrove swamp soils and acts as a net exporter of dissolved inorganic nutrients from the mangroves and adjacent coastal ecosystems because low tide current was identified more stronger than high tide current (Chapman and Tolhurst, 2006).

82 high tide low tide SS (mg/l) Distance from first sampling point (km) Figure 4.11: Profile of suspended solids from upstream to downstream during high tide and low tide which is increased from upstream to adjacent of coastal water probably because of bottom sediment disturbance consequence from boats and ships traffics as well as imported of suspended solids from mangrove area and Straits of Melaka ph ph is a major environmental factor of aquatic ecosystems at the interface of physicochemical and biological processes. It is regulated by carbonate equilibrium, both in the ocean and in most inland waters, and is impacted by biological processes such as photosynthesis and respiration. From Figure 4.12 shown here, it is can be concluded that water in Sungai Batu Pahat is acidic water in close relation to the geology such as acidic existing sediment. As study made by Weisse and Stadler (2006), in Northern Europe and North America, the lowered ph is impacted by poorly buffered waters as a consequence of acidic deposition.

83 66 At middle stream, which is within distance from 2.5 km to 4.24 km, the ph value is lower rather than high tide with 1.03 mg/l difference due to heavy metal discharged from urban areas which finally produce high hydrogen ions in water column. The river is less acidic during high tide because the extra volume of water somehow has neutralizing effect on the water (Chipman, 1934). It is must take into account that, Sungai Batu Pahat still covered by riverbank vegetation especially mangrove and mangrove roots is identified to lower the ph (Kristensen et al., 1991). 7 6 high tide low tide 5 4 ph Distance from first sampling point (km) Figure 4.12: ph value within Sungai Batu Pahat that can be concluded as acidic water because of natural geology and activities at mangroves roots that was identified to lower the ph According to Alongi et al. (1998), mangrove roots play a main role to acidic waters by oxidation of reduced heavy metal compounds caused by translocation of O 2 by roots, bioturbating crabs, or the dominance of aerobic decomposition of organic matter which results in the net production of carbonic acid. The chemical reaction of acidic water is simple which is when carbon dioxide combines with water, it forms carbonic acid and releases hydrogen ions (Victor et al., 2006). The

84 67 varies of ph value during high tide because river waters usually contain a lower concentration of excess bases than seawater (Alongi et al., 1998) 4.6 Biological Analysis Analyses of biological parameter consist of riverbank vegetation, fisheries, phytoplankton, zooplankton and benthic macroinvertebrate Riverbank Vegetation Result In 1980, mangrove forest reserve in Selangor and west Johor were about ha (Loneragan et al., 2005) and the abundance of mangrove may disappear time by time because of logging activities and as aquaculture activities (Cheevaporn and Menasveta, 2003; Alongi et al., 1999). In developing countries, the mangrove area will decline of 1 percent every year (Alongi et al., 1999). Sungai Batu Pahat, however, still covered by riverbank vegetation such as mangrove and nypa. At the upstream of study area (length of 2.5 meter), total area from both sides of estuaries is approximately acre and middle stream covers acre of riverbank vegetation. Area of riverbank vegetation at middle stream is bigger than upstream because of length covered for middle stream (3.76 meter). At downstream (length of 4.17 meter), which have open wide width were cover acre of riverbank vegetation. The abundance of vegetation at downstream was with respect to undisturbed habitat. From interviewing with forestry officers of Batu Pahat, Ranger Suliman bin Omar and En. Rosli bin Kadir, the species of riverbank vegetation that most found in Sungai Batu Pahat was as listed in Table 4.7. The status of tree whether it true mangrove or mangrove associates were based on study by Ashton and Machintosh (2002)

85 68 Table 4.7: Riverbank vegetation that mostly found at Sungai Batu Pahat Family Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora Apiculata Rhizophora Mucronata Bruguiera Gymnorrhiza Bruguiera Parviflora Bruguiera Cylindrica Ceriops Tagal Species Local Name Status Bakau Minyak Bakau Kurap Tumu Lenggadai Berus Tengar M M M M M M Family Combretaecae Lumnitzera Littorea Lumnitzera Racemosa Family Plypodiaceae Acrostichum Sepciosum Acrostichum Aureum Family Meliaceae Xylocarpus Granatum Xylocarpus Moluccencis Nypa Fruiticans Family Avicenniaceae Avicennia 4 spp Avicennia Alba Teruntum Merah Teruntum Putih Piai Lasa Piai Raya Nyireh Bunga Nyireh Batu Nipah Api-api Api-api Putih M M M M M M NM M M Family Malvaceae Thespesia Populnea Bebaru MA Other Plectrantus amboinicus Jemuju NM M=True Mangrove, NM= Not Mangove Species, MA= Mangrove Associated There are 7 species with 17 type of riverbank vegetation that survive within study area and parallel to shoreline mangrove plant species richness is high and vegetation zonation was observed. This regarding to Ashton (2002) found that at foreshore, there was a mixed mangrove species zone. From actual observation, at the upstream and middle stream of estuaries, nypa seem to be found the most beside mangrove species due to low salinity and calm water (Ng and Sivasothi, 2001). Rhizophora are mostly found along water front and Avicenna is behind them on landward side which is common in mangrove estuaries (Desai and Untawale, 2002). A lot of study about the mangrove habitat in term of biomass, moisture content, and productivity of leaves, flower buds, flowers and propagules (Clough et al., 2000; Ashton, 2002; Christensen and Andersen, 1976). The above ground biomass for R. Apiculata and R. Mucronata were the greatest followed by B.

86 69 parviflora, B. gymnorrhiza, C. tagal and X. granatum (Clough et al, 2000) due to its props roots that formed 39% of total biomass above the ground (Christensen, 1976) while decreasing of leaves moisture content between senescent and fresh mangrove species leaves proportionally as follow; B. parviflora senescent >R. Apiculata senescent > B. gymnorrhiza senescent >B. gymnorrhiza fresh > B. parviflora fresh > R. apiculata fresh (Ashton, 2002). In Matang Mangrove, Perak, R. Apiculata was a dominant species but decline in time while abundance of B. parviflora and B. cylindrica increased (Putz and Chan, 2003) as well as in Kalimantan mangroves (Abdulhadi and Suhardjono, 1994). Beside, X. granatum is dominant in Sungai Semantan, Sarawak because this species prefer soils with high water content due to high freshwater run-off (>30%) and good drainage (Ashton and Machintosh, 2002). In Kerala, India, B. gymnorrhiza is found abundant in low saline area while A. aureum prefers the areas of low ph and salinity (Balasubramaniam, 2002). R. Apiculata which well recognizes by its props roots is main mangrove species which are widely used in Southeast Asia as a source of fuel wood, to produce timber for construction, and for the manufacture of charcoal (Clough et al., 2000). Regarding to its high regeneration compared to C. Tagal that has poor regeneration. The best way to make trees survive and regenerated well is by cutting at higher stem that live branches (with leaves) are spared (Walters, 2005). Flowering of Rhizophora species is greatest during wet season (Leach and Burgin, 1985) and development flower bud primordia to mature propagules took nearly three years (Christensen and Andersen, 1976) Fish Result Table 4.8 shows number of fisherman with respect to district in 2005 that provided by the Department of Fisheries. There are approximately 1,156 fishermen in the Batu Pahat District with about 12.5% of the total number fisherman in the state

87 70 of Johor. The total number of fish landed at Batu Pahat was 2, metric ton which is approximately 3.5 % of the total fish landed in Johor. Table 4.8: Number of fishermen according to district (Department of Fisheries, 2005) District of Johor Fisherman Bumiputera Chinese Indian Others Total Muar ,251 Batu Pahat ,156 Pontian ,230 Johor Bharu Kota Tinggi Utara (Tg.Sedili) ,032 Kota Tinggi Selatan (Pengerang ) Mersing 1, ,345 Total 6,218 2, ,310 There are two jetties within study area which is Teluk Wawasan and Kampung Sungai Suloh. The types of fish that landed at these two jetties are enclosed at Appendix A. Although the fish landed at the Teluk Wawasan and Kg Sungai Suloh does not necessarily represent fishes caught at Sungai Batu Pahat, the data indicates the type of commercially important fishes caught in the adjacent coastal areas. There are 13 species from 9 families with a total 470 specimens and total weight of kg as shown in Table 4.9. From the survey, family Ariidae (Figure 4.13) was dominant within study areas which represented by 2 species; Arius thallasinus and Arius Maculatus or commonly call catfish (Duri) with 86 percent from total fish species found as shown in Figure Figure 4.13: Family Ariidae (Catfish) that caught during study event

88 % 2.13% 1.07% 0.64% 0.21% 0.21% 0.21% 0.21% 86.38% Ariidae Mugillidae Carangidae Tetradontidae Clupeidae Polynemidae Pristigasteridae Engraulididae Ambassidae Figure 4.14: Percentage of species number found within study area Liza Subviridis (Belanak) and Valamugil seheli (Belanak Angin) with 9 percent which represent family Mugillidae was the second dominated fish within study area. They are known to form as schools in shallow coastal waters and enter lagoons, estuaries, and fresh water to feed. The greenback mullet live in freshwater, brackish water and marine water (Abu Khair Mohammad Mohsin et al., 1993). Other commercial species that were caught in the field survey were Eleutheronem tetradactylum (Senagin), Anondontostoma chacunda (Selangat), Scomberoides tala (Talang) and Ilisha elongata (Puput). However, the number of this species is lesser than catfish due to clearing of mangrove along the riverbank near the river mouth. The overall catfish found were in a range of 14.0 to 20.5 cm of length but for Arius Thallasinus, greater size of species is mostly found rather than small size with the range of 20.0 to 22.5 cm as shown in Table This could be of sensitivity to suspended solids of early-life stages of catfish rather than an adult (Hadil Rajali and Gambang, 2000). This species occurred mostly at the upstream part of study area which near the jetty at the Department of Fisheries office and near the remaining patches of mangrove at north and south of riverbank due to abundance pristine mangrove habitat at downstream of study area. It is known that the Arius (Duri) is

89 72 usually found in inshore waters and estuaries but rarely enters freshwater (Kailola, 1999). Table 4.9: Fish species found in Sungai Batu Pahat Family Species Local Common Number % Numbers Weight (g) Ariidae Arius thallasinus Duri pulutan Catfish Arius maculatus Duri Catfish Polynemidae Eleutheronem tetradactylum Senagin Fourfingers threadfin Mugillidae Liza subviridis Belanak Greenback mullet Valamugil seheli Kedera Bluespot mullet Carangidae Scomeroides tala Talang Barred queenfish Tetradontidae Lagacephalus Buntal Toadfish wheeli pisang Chelnodon patoca Buntal Milk-spotted toadfish Pristigasteridae Ilisha elongata Puput Elongate ilisha Engraulididae Thryssa hamiltonii Kasai Hamilton's thryssa Ambassidae Ambassis sp Seriding Glass fish Clupeidae Anodontostoma chacunda Selangat Gizzard shad Total Table 4.10: Range of fish species length Family Species Length Range (cm) Ariidae Arius thallasinus Arius maculatus Polynemidae Eleutheronem tetradactylum 19.4 Mugillidae Liza subviridis Valamugil seheli Carangidae Scomeroides tala Tetradontidae Lagacephalus wheeli Chelnodon patoca Pristigasteridae Ilisha elongata 18.8 Engraulididae Thryssa hamiltonii 8.4 Ambassidae Ambassis sp 10.2 Clupeidae Anodontostoma chacunda

90 73 Compared to WQI for Sungai Batu Pahat which is Class III at upstream and decrease to Class IV at middle stream, it is not surprisingly about the dominance of catfish because bottom-dwelling fish species like the catfish is tolerant to suspended solids and low water quality (Hadil Rajali and Gambang, 2000). Moreover, according to Kailola (1999), catfish was considered as commercial fish and occurs often in schools form. Small crabs, mollusk and small fishes are become dietary for catfish. For other foremost commercial fish, the water quality of this estuaries may effect their population and habitat which implied by number of this species were caught in study area because they are not in tolerant fish type. The main reason for existing of this juvenile species (range of 10.0 to 20.0 cm) is because of patches of mangrove that still remain along the riverbank. For Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Senangin), adult fish length may reach over than 50.0 cm. Marine fish and low commercial value fish such as Lagacephalus lunaris (Buntal pisang) and Chelnodon patoca (Buntal) also enters this estuaries even only 5 numbers of them. Meaning that, the water quality at Sungai Batu Pahat still can support marine fish. But for juveniles fish, they may enter mangrove and rice field. They take small algae, diatoms and benthic detrital material as feeding (Harrison and Senou, 1997). The size and length distribution of the species within study area shows a normal and stable population of predominantly young and adult fishes. However, the length of the species found within study area is considered small because, the greenback mullet s length may reach to 40 cm (Harrison and Senou, 1997). This is regarding to decreasing of mangrove area for them to feed. Even though the water quality within study area not in health status for most commercial species, but the mangrove remaining along the riverbank would be act as shelter and breeding area. It is true that, the class III of water quality provided by DOE (1986) may support abundance of tolerant fish such as Arius. However, there still have juvenile commercial fish such as Eleutheronem tetradactylum (Senagin), Anondontostoma chacunda (Selangat), Scomberoides tala (Talang) and Ilisha elongata (Puput) shows that, fish species does not rely on water quality alone but also rely on breeding and feeding area; mangrove (Alfaro, 2004; Cheevaporn and Menasveta 2003; Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001; Nagelkerken et al., 1999; Gilbert and Janssen 1996).

91 Phytoplankton Analysis The phytoplanktons are one of the initial biological components, from which energy is transferred into higher organisms through food web. Biomass and production of phytoplankton of various sizes are important factors, which regulate the availability and diversity of organisms at higher trophic levels. Table 4.11: Phytoplankton taxa during high tide Stations Upstream Middle stream Downstream Bacillariophyceae Chaetoceros sp. Thalassionema nitzschiodes Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii - - Biddulphia sp. Biddulphia sinensis Fragilaria sp Dithylium sol - Dithylium brightwellii Nitzschia longgisima Nitzschia sigma Nitzschia sp. - Pleurosigma sp. Navicula sp. Closterium sp Codonella aspera Codonella americana Codonella sp. - Tintinnopsis sp. Flavella sp. Xystonella lohmanni - - Ethmodiscus sp. - - Coscinodiscus lineatus - Cosconidiscus sp. Triceratium Rhizosolenia sp. Hemialus sp. Skeletonema costatum Guinardia sp. - Spyrogyra sp Leptocylindrus danicus Dinophyceae Ceratium sp. Total Species

92 75 The dominant phytoplanktons in Sungai Batu Pahat are Bacillariophyceae or diatom and Dinophyceae (dinoflagellates) during high tide (Table 4.11) and only Bacillariophyceae were found during low tide (Table 4.12). Khiteka et al. (1996) also found out that diatoms and dinoflagellates is dominant phytoplankton in Bay. Phytoplanktons have direct relationship with tides, strength of the current and direction of flows (Balasubramaniam, 2002). Bacillariophyceae species such as Navicula and Spirogyra are seen only during low tide where the freshwater influence in the biotopes. Table 4.12: Phytoplankton taxa during low tide Stations Upstream Middle stream Downstream Bacillariophyceae Chaetoceros sp. Thalassionema nitzschiodes Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii Biddulphia sp. Biddulphia sinensis Fragilaria sp. - Dithylium sol Dithylium brightwellii Nitzschia longgisima Nitzschia sigma Nitzschia sp. - Pleurosigma sp. Navicula sp. - Closterium sp. - Codonella aspera - - Codonella americana - - Codonella sp. - - Tintinnopsis sp. Flavella sp. - - Xystonella lohmanni - - Ethmodiscus sp Coscinodiscus lineatus - - Cosconidiscus sp. - Triceratium - - Rhizosolenia sp. - - Hemialus sp Skeletonema costatum Guinardia sp Spyrogyra sp. - Leptocylindrus danicus - - Dinophyceae Ceratium sp Total Species

93 76 The most abundant species found in this river were Thalassionema nitzschiodes, Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii, Navicula sp, Nitzschia sp, Nitzschia longgisima, Nitzschia sigma, and Codonella sp. These species are known to be tolerant to organic pollution and eutrophication. Therefore we may conclude that diatoms are useful for biological monitoring of disturbed tropical rivers. (Ana and Silva, 1994; Jacob et al., 1982) Distribution Pattern of Phytoplankton Due to Riverbank Vegetation The phytoplanktons are represented by Chrysophyta (diatoms) and Pyrophyta (dinoflagellates). A total of 31 taxa were identified during sampling event with 13 similar taxa occurred for both high tide and low tide. Figure 4.15 shows phytoplankton taxanomy that was found during study event and being characterized based on its tolerance to low water quality according to previous study (Donald et al., 2002; Ana and Silva, 1994; Devi and Lakshminaryana, 1989; Jacob et al., 1982) high tide low tide riverbank vegetation Total phytoplankton Taxa Riverbank vegetation (Acre) upstream middlestream downstream Location within the river 0 Figure 4.15: Distribution pattern of phytoplankton taxa which is slightly increase towards downstream for high tide and low tide

94 77 As shown in Figure 4.15, for high tide, there was 25 taxa occurred with the distribution of phytoplankton 19 taxa at upstream, 20 taxa at middle stream and 23 taxa at downstream. Only 16 taxa were recognized to be at entire stream. While for low tide, only 21 taxa were identified with 10 taxa (upstream), 13 taxa (middle stream) and 16 taxa (downstream). There were 6 similar taxa identified within study area. During high tide, total taxon of phytoplankton was found higher compared to low tide event which dominated by Biddulphia spp and Chaetoceros spp. The presence of diatoms, such as Chaetoceros spp., Thalassiosira spp., and Biddulphia spp. is related to good quality water (Devi and Lakshminaryana, 1989) and most common community found at warm water (Jacob et al., 1982). Based on dissolved oxygen concentration during high tide, it showed an acceptable level for aquatic life (>2 mg/l) (McCaull and Crossland, 1974) rather than during low tide which is likely to have less than 2 mg/l except at downstream (average of 5.25 mg/l). Other reason could be regarding to nutrient supply and light ability which become an essential component for their productivity (Hoai et al., 2006; Effler et al., 1991; Delizo et al., 2005). Injection of coastal water to estuaries would be the main reason of increasing taxa during high tide. At mid high tide, the concentrations of chlorophyll (associated with low levels of degraded pigments) were higher than the concentrations (associated with a higher load of degraded pigments) seen at mid low tide (Hoai et al., 2006). Chlorophyll was recognized to identify the existing phytoplankton on water bodies (Tarim, 2002; Harris and Piccinin, 1983). Phytoplankton during low tide was much lower than high tide could be due to lack of penetration of light to water column because of higher turbidity (Rao et al., 1982). It is well known that, the low penetration of light into the water column (rarely surpassing 10 cm) (Hoai et al., 2006) and anoxic condition (Ahsen et al., 2006) does not allow a significant increase in phytoplankton productivity. Beside, the decreasing of phytoplankton taxon during low tide was corresponding to competition for nutrients with bacteria even there are nutrient supply from mangrove, did not influence growth any further (Capo et al., 2005) and part of nutrient is used to sustain zooplankton biomass (Khiteka et al., 1996).

95 78 Biddulphia spp and Codonella sp was identified to always present taxa during low tide and it can be concluded that water quality of Sungai Batu Pahat still in good condition and may support the high demanding phytoplankton such as Biddulphia spp which rarely found in polluted water. Total phytoplankton was seen to be increased towards downstream due to increasing of riverbank vegetation (main supplier to their productivity) as well as imported nutrient from Strait of Malacca water. While tidal change appears to determine the distribution pattern of phytoplankton Distribution Pattern of Phytoplankton Due to Dissolved Oxygen Phytoplanktons that were identified consist of two families which are diatom and dinoflagellates. Diatoms are harmless and dinoflagellates that found in this study were non-toxic species. During high tide and low tide, phytoplankton taxa were increase with increasing of dissolved oxygen as shown in Table The decreasing taxa during low tide because of effluent discharge from tributaries such as phosphorus from agriculture activities and quarry activites, and heavy metal from urban area. Phytoplankton assemblage is sensitive to phosphorus and heavy metal enrichment (Kitheka et al., 2000). Phytoplanktons that are not limited by nitrogen or phosphorus are likely to have nutrient ratios of approximately 106C:16N:1P on a molar basis (Donald et al., 2002). All phytoplankton found at study area were tolerant to organic pollution. Table 4.13: Phytoplankton taxa as compared to DO concentration Location within the river Variables Upstream Middle stream Downstream DO (mg/l) Phytoplankton (taxa) DO (mg/l) Phytoplankton (taxa) DO (mg/l) Phytoplankton (taxa) High tide Low tide Riverbank vegetation (acre)

96 Distribution Pattern of Phytoplankton Due to ph According to Weisse and Stadler (2006), ph is an important physicochemical environmental parameter affecting ciliate species composition and species richness. However, an experimental laboratory investigation of the ph reaction norm of common species is still lacking. From Table 4.14, phytoplankton species were increase as ph increase even the water still considered as acidic waters. As the ph change, the species also change. Huang et al. (2003) identified that the phytoplankton amount was highest in autumn, as was the ph value. When the ph decreases, dinoflagellates tend to dominance. Dinoflagellate is toxic algae that could harm fish and grazer (Rao et al., 1982) in toxic condition. Table 4.14: Phytoplankton taxa as compared to ph Location within the river Variables Upstream Middle stream Downstream Phytoplankton Phytoplankton Phytoplankton ph (taxa) ph (taxa) ph (taxa) High tide Low tide Riverbank vegetation (acre) Zooplankton Analysis Zooplankton is significant food for fish and invertebrate predators and they graze heavily on algae, bacteria, protozoa, and other invertebrates (Victor et al., 2006). Table 4.15 shows numbers of zooplankton the present in Sungai Batu Pahat in unit ind/m 3 during high tide while during low tide is shown in Table The indices of species richness, Margalef index (D) and Shannon-Weiner index (H ) with higher value showed that composition of zooplankton was more diverse at the downstream stations than at the upstream stations (see Appendix B). The evenness Pielou s index (J ) also showed that the community of zooplankton in the adjacent coastal waters (J = 0.43) during low tides was constituted by various species

97 80 as compared to the river s community which mainly dominated by rotifer. It can be concluded that zooplankton species diversity and abundance at Sungai Batu Pahat is mainly influenced by the sea and tides. Hoai et al. (2006) was identified rotifers, copepods and cladoceran were dominant zooplankton during high tide and low tide near the river mouth. Table 4.15: Zooplankton during high tide in unit ind/m 3 Taxa Upstream Middle stream Downstream ROTIFERA Brachionus sp CRUSTACEA Copepoda Copepod nauplius Calanoida Acartia sp Pontellidae copepodid Pseudodiaptomus sp Parvocalanus sp Paracalanidae copepodid Centropages sp Unidentified calanoid copepodid Cyclopoida Oithona sp Cyclops sp Harpaticoida Euterpina sp Harpaticoid sp Decapoda Acetes protozoea Lucifer mysis Ostracoda Cladoceran Moinodaphnia sp Cirripedia Cirripede nauplius SARCOMASTIGOPHORA (PROTOZOA) Tintinnopsis sp Favella sp Noctiluca sp Total

98 81 Table 4.16: Zooplankton during low tide in unit ind/m 3 Taxa Upstream Middle stream Downstream ROTIFERA Brachionus sp CRUSTACEA Copepoda Copepod nauplius Calanoida Acartia sp Pontellidae copepodid Pseudodiaptomus sp Parvocalanus sp Bestiolina sp Paracalanus sp Paracalanidae copepodid Eucalanus sp Temora sp Unidentified calanoid copepodid Cyclopoida Oithona sp Cyclops sp Harpaticoida Euterpina sp Decapoda Acetes protozoea Lucifer protozoea Lucifer sp Ostracoda Cladoceran Anollela sp Moinodaphnia sp Cirripedia Cirripede nauplius CHAETOGNATHA Sagitta sp CNIDARIA Leptomedusa (hydrozoa) SARCOMASTIGOPHORA (PROTOZOA) Tintinnopsis sp Favella sp Total

99 Distribution Pattern of Zooplankton Due to Riverbank Vegetation Zooplankton always present in marine, brackish and freshwater. The common zooplankton species encountered for this study are Rotifera, Copepoda, Cladocera and Protozoa. It is similar result with study carried out at Ogunpa and Ona rivers, Nigeria by Gbemisola (2001) as well as a study by Khiteka et al, (1996) at Kidogoweni and Mkurumuji rivers in Kenya. The dominant species and were always present species during both high tide and low tide was rotifers-brachionus sp followed by calanoids copepoda. Existing of Rotifers and Cladocerans were associated with oligotrophic waters (low productivity: low levels of nutrients, active chlorophyll a biomass and luminosity, and high concentrations of humic compounds) (Hoai et al., 2006). According to Figure 4.16, during high tide, there are 20 species found, while during low tide, there were added up 5 species (found mostly at downstream). This regarding to detritus leaching from mangrove swamps towards downstream. It is well known that the outgoing low tide will leach nutrient from the mangrove swamp soils and act as exporter of dissolved inorganic nutrient from the mangroves and adjacent coastal ecosystem (Khiteka et al., 1996) because low tide current is more stronger rather than high tide current (Chapman and Tolhurst, 2006) high tide low tide riverbank vegetation Zooplankton (ind/m3) Riverbank Vegetation (Acre) upstream middlestream downstream Location within the river 0 Figure 4.16: Zooplankton community distribution along the river

100 83 Other zooplankton encountered for this study were Decapoda, Cirripedia At upstream and middle stream, for both tides, the zooplankton species were diverse and well distribute but in different percentage. At upstream, there are 7 species with average ind/m3, whereas average number of zooplankton is ind/m 3 were found at middle stream with 12 species during high tide. For average number of zooplankton low tide density at upstream and middle stream was evaluated of ind/m 3 with 4 species involved and ind/m 3 with 5 species, respectively. There was less 12 percent reduction of zooplankton density with less species found during low tide for both upstream and middle stream because of human activities such as quarry, settlement and heavy boat traffics with respect to mangrove loss and less detritus. Zooplankton consumes bacteria and detritus as their nutrition (Rougier et al., 2004). Beside, this could be due to food availability, spawning patterns of different zooplankton groups and tidal rhythms (Khiteka et al., 2006) and their percentages were independent of the tidal cycles (Rougier et al., 2004). At downstream, the abundance of zooplankton during low tide with 24 species (average of ind/m 3 ) compared to high tide with only 18 species (average of ind/m 3) with 19.7 percent rotifers reduction. The number of rotifers during high tide and low tide is ind/m 3 and ind/m 3, respectively. According to Rougier et al, (2004), there are less 20 percent of rotifer reduction between high tide and low tide period. The high in number of zooplankton during low tide at downstream with respect to river mouth and abundance of mangrove habitat which characterized by strong turbidity and high amounts of organic detritus, the presence of bacteria and detritus could contribute to the maintenance of this community (Rougier et al., 2004). Furthermore, the other reason of abundance species at downstream during low tide could be the low salinity water that outflow from freshwater during this period (Khiteka et al., 1996). The existing of abundance copepods in Sungai Batu Pahat relating to water quality which have acidic water (range 3-6) was common because copepods was characterized as much hardier and strong motile than other zooplankton with their tougher exoskeleton and longer and stronger appendages (Ramachandra et al., 2006).

101 84 This finding supported by Jha and Barat (2003) that, found abundance of copepods in acidic ph of water bodies due to nature and other physicochemical factor. The abundance of copepods relate to the stable condition of environment (Das et al., 1996). Beside, it is well recognized that zooplankton is exists under a wide range of environment, but there are many species are influenced by temperature, dissolved oxygen, salinity and other physicochemical factors. For example, rotifer is more sensitive to pollution rather than other groups of zooplankton (Khan and Rao, 1981). However, Sungai Batu Pahat can be classified as slightly polluted but abundance of rotifers found it most stream portion. Pandey et al, (2004) found that there were negative correlation between rotifers and ph, dissolved oxygen (DO) and turbidity while copepods showed negative correlation with water temperature, nitrate and phosphate Distribution Pattern of Zooplankton Due to Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved oxygen shows depletion during low tide at upstream with 20.5%, 45 % at middle stream and 26% at downstream. The depletion of DO concentration resulting low water quality and only tolerant species may survive as shown in Table At upstream, species that less tolerant will decrease during low tide and be replaced by abundance of tolerant species which less in number during high tide. Same thing goes at middle stream, which some species that exist during high tide, suddenly disappeared during low tide. Table 4.17: Zooplankton numbers as compared to DO concentration Location within the river Variables Upstream Middle stream Downstream DO (mg/l) Zooplankton (ind/m 3 ) DO (mg/l) Zooplankton (ind/m 3 ) DO (mg/l) Zooplankton (ind/m 3 ) High tide Low tide Riverbank vegetation (acre)

102 85 This species shows water quality during low tide much polluted. At downstream, however, zooplankton species increase with decreasing of DO concentration. This associated to rapid increasing of tolerant species with abundance of nutrient leaching from riverbank vegetation and freshwater. According to Victor et al. (2006), low DO will lead to decreasing of zooplankton taxa richness, however increase the taxon or taxa that tolerant to low DO Distribution Pattern of Zooplankton Due to ph There is little direct evidence of low ph induced changes in the total zooplankton biomass. However, it is clear that species composition may vary as a result of the different tolerances of species to low ph values. From Table 4.18, zooplankton assemblages are varies with respect to increasing of ph value. Changes in zooplankton may also alter the pressure due to predation on phytoplankton, thus affecting species composition. In addition, sudden variations of ph, typical of weakly buffered systems can shift to species that more tolerant to it. Table 4.18: Zooplankton numbers as compared to ph Location within the river Variables Upstream Middle stream Downstream Zooplankton Zooplankton Zooplankton ph (ind/m 3 ) ph (ind/m 3 ) ph (ind/m 3 ) High tide Low tide Riverbank vegetation (acre) Macrobenthos Analysis Table 4.19 and Table 4.20 show type of macrobenthos that had been caught during high tide and low tide respectively. Number and types of benthic

103 86 communities were absolutely low due to human disturbance but still exist as existing of detritus that acts as food and habitat provided by mangrove. Table 4.19: Benthic macroinvetebrates within study area during high tide Stream Benthos Total No. Notes Downstream Polychate : Nereis sp. 4 Fragments of bivalves, gastropods, oysters, : Polychate sp. 1 1 detritus as well as presence of charcoal/ Bivalves : Yoldia 6 carbon Middle stream 0 Sand, Twigs and broken branches, unidentified fruits, seeds, sea grass, weeds and fragment of plants Upstream 0 Root, grass and sand Table 4.20: Benthic macroinvetebrates within study area during low tide Stream Benthos Total No. Notes Downstream Polychate : Sabellidae :Polychate sp. 2 :Nereis sp Fragments of bivalves, gastropods, oysters and detritus as well as weeds. Middle stream Gastropod: Nassarius sp. 3 Detritus, leaves and fragments of plants Diopatra 1 Polychate : Nereis sp. 2 Upstream Polychate : Nereis sp. 1 Clay substrate, detritus, muddy substrate and fragments of bivalves Distribution Pattern of Macobenthos Due to Riverbank Vegetation Microinvertebrate or also known as macrobentos found in Sungai Batu Pahat was poor diversity. According to Figure 4.17, during high tide, no macrobenthos species was found at upstream and middle stream but polycate (4 Nereis sp and 4 Polycate sp 1) and primitive bivalves (6 Yoldia) was identified at downstream with

104 87 fragments of bivalves, gastropods and oyster was found. The substrate at downstream at the river mouth is dark muddy and oily probably due to discharges or spillages from vessels entering and exiting the river. The substrate is sandy at downstream while at middle stream, the substrate is sandy with and rocky with gravels that might have fallen of barges carrying gravel from the nearby quarry site. Only fragments of plants and detritus were found at upstream and downstream. During low tide, 1 polycate Nereis sp (upstream), and 2 Nereis sp (middle stream) 1 polycate Sabellidae, 4 Nereis sp, 1 Polycate sp 2, 1 Diopatra and 3 Gastropod Nassarius sp (downstream) was found. The average value of total macrobenthos during high tide and low tide were as follow, respectively; 0 (upstream), 0 (downstream), 5.5 (downstream) and 1 (upstream), 2 (upstream), 10 (downstream). The abundance of macrobenthos at downstream could be respond to the great areas of riverbank vegetation and wide area high tide low tide riverbank vegetation Numbers of Macrobenthos Riverbank Vegetation (Acre) upstream middlestream downstream Location within the river 0 Figure 4.17: Macrobenthos that found during study event which shows low diversity during high tide and low tide In general, the abundance of macrobenthos in the study area was relatively low. This was probably due to the fact that the study area have been subjected to

105 88 significant environmental alteration that may have lead to heavy disturbance and unstable river bed. High number of marine traffic and barges carrying gravel from the nearby quarry may have contributed to this condition. Polycates and bivalves which mostly present species of macrobenthos within study area was not something new because this species has highly tolerant to organic pollution (Ahsen et al., 2006; Luoma and Cloern, 1980) Distribution Pattern of Macrobenthos Due to Dissolved Oxygen Macrobenthos that had been caught during study event was poor in number as shown in Table During high tide, even DO increase, no species were found at upstream and downstream because, at upstream, the substrate is sand which always no species present (Chindah and Braide, 2001). While at middle stream, sediment was disturbed by sandy with and rocky with gravels that might have fallen of barges carrying gravel from the nearby quarry site. At downstream, number of benthos increasing due to muddy substrate and quality of food supplied. Table 4.21: Numbers of macrobenthos as compared to DO concentration Location within the river Variables Upstream Middle stream Downstream DO (mg/l) Macrobenthos (no) DO (mg/l) Macrobenthos (no) DO (mg/l) Macrobenthos (no) High tide Low tide Riverbank vegetation (acre) During low tide, a few species that tolerant to low DO concentration were found. This is because, during high tide, this species will burrow deep beneath the surface to avoid them from flushing to downstream when low tide event occurred (Chindah and Braide, 2001). They only emerged to bring down food and oxygen. DO concentration not directly related to macrobenthos assemblage because, the sediment had already disturbed by human activities. Most of species found in this study were tolerant to low water quality.

106 89 Hypoxia and anoxia degrade bottom habitats through a wide suite of mechanisms. Under conditions of limited oxygen at the bottom, rates of nitrogen and phosphorous remineralization and sulfate reduction increase. The resulting production of sulfide in combination with low oxygen can prove lethal to benthic. Because benthic macrofauna serve as essential prey resources for demersal fishes, sustained hypoxia can have significant trophic implications (Lin et al., 2006) The poor diversity of benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages in Sungai Batu Pahat generally because alteration of ecosystem structure and function in streams through habitat homogenization, oxygen depletion, organic matter retention decreasing, as well as ammonium and phosphate uptake velocity decreasing, that shifts towards tolerant organisms (Thomas, 2004) Distribution Pattern of Macrobenthos Due to ph According to Table 4.22, macrobenthos community were less influenced by ph value because the sediment of Sungai Batu Pahat was already disturbed by human activities such as oil disposal and gravel that fallen from quarry nearby (Simpson and Pedini, 1985). They added that, benthic activity in the water column and sediment is primarily limited by the low availability of organic matter characteristic of these ponds, and not so much by the low ph. Only the tolerant species and a lot of bivalve fragment and detritus were found during study event. Table 4.22: Numbers of macrobenthos as compared to ph Location within the river Variables Upstream Middle stream Downstream Macrobenthos Macrobenthos Macrobenthos ph (no) ph (no) ph (no) High tide Low tide Riverbank vegetation (acre)

107 CHAPTER V CONCLUSION 5.1 Conclusion The study of water quality and biodiversity at Sungai Batu Pahat has achieved its objectives. Water quality was analyzed by using DOE-WQI and was found that, water quality at Sungai Batu Pahat during high tide and low tide was consistent from upstream towards downstream with class III at upstream, down to class IV at middle stream and eventually increase to class III at downstream. From land use analysis, the fluctuating of water quality at Sungai Batu Pahat is strongly related to human activities especially by untreated sewage and waste disposal from urban area, settlement and barter-trades jetties. While, since we go through to each parameter analysis, the most influence parameter that causes the deteriorating of water quality to class IV at middle stream for high tide and low tide are organic and inorganic matter which can be seen at BOD and COD analysis. During high tide, water quality is much better rather than during low tide due to mixing of coastal water and freshwater that resulting dilution. During low tide, water quality much worst because of polluted water injected to estuaries from tributaries. Generally, the distribution of planktonic life and macroinvertebrates within study area was tidal and mangrove dependent. Biodiversity was found abundance at downstream and present with low number and species at upstream and downstream

108 91 probably because lands use activities. Biodiversity that mostly found within study area is tolerant species to low dissolved oxygen concentration and ph. Although physical and chemical variables are commonly used to determine water quality, these parameters by themselves can only express the conditions of water at the moment of sampling. On the other hand, biological monitoring can give information about the water conditions for a longer period. From the analysis of water quality and biodiversity at Sungai Batu Pahat, can be concluded that Sungai Batu Pahat still can support the aquatic life such as fish, zooplankton, phytoplankton and macrobenthos even though only the abundance of tolerant species appeared due to slightly polluted river water classification. The abundance species of diatom in Sungai Batu Pahat indicates that mangrove in this area are in a good health (Prepas and Charette, 2003; Holguin et al., 2005) Furthermore, high commercial fish and demanding species (require high quality of water to survive) such as a juvenile gizzard shad, rotifers zooplankton and Biddulphia sp phytoplankton was found within study area were strongly support this finding. Although the WQI shows low quality of water, the existing riverbank such as mangrove and tidal changes play an important role in determining the abundance of quality food and safety home for aquatic life. The decreasing of riverbank vegetation in the future may reduce the present of aquatic life in Sungai Batu Pahat This finding was similar to study that made by Hajisame and Chou (2003) at Johor Strait, Peninsular Malaysia. They conclude that, although the Johor Strait is heavily impacted, there are still some tolerant habitats that remain because of existing patches of mangrove as well as act as an important ecosystem for a diverse assemblage of juveniles and small-sized fish species. 5.2 Recommendation There are a few measures which can be taken in order to improve the quality of Sungai Batu Pahat in term of water and biodiversity such as:

109 92 (i) (ii) (iii) Relocated the squatters along the riverbank to another proper place to stay; Governments should issue and enforce legislation to control industrial activities in the coastal zone. Such legislation would profitably be accompanied by monitoring and should be enforced by authorized government agencies; Enhance the total area covered by mangroves. The easiest and least expensive way to achieve this goal is to assist natural mangrove colonization in sheltered coastal segments by providing or enhancing seedling fluxes to the area, protecting seedlings from herbivory and increasing propagule retention time with artificial shelters. In order to improve the accuracy as well as the effectiveness of this study, there are a few recommendation that should been follow such as; (i) (ii) (iii) Added more sampling station and water quality parameter such as heavy metals and phosphate; Sampling event should be made longer period to identify the actual distribution of planktonic life and benthic macroinvertebrates; Detail study should be made on mangrove activities in order to achieved actual nutrient contributor to biota growth.

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130 APPENDIX

131 APPENDIX A Data of Fish 114 Table A1:Types of fish landed at Kg Sungai Suloh fishing jetty. Family Species Local Common Ariidae Arius thallasinus Duri pulutan Catfish Arius arius Pedukang Catfish Arius maculatus Duri Catfish Cynoglossidae Gynoglossus arel Lidah Large scale tongue sole Plotosidae Plotosus canius Sembilang Canine catfish eel Polynemidae Eleutheronem tetradactylum Senagin Fourfingers threadfin Dasyatidae Dasyatis sp Pari Stingray Mugillidae Liza vaigiensis Loban Squaretail mullet Mugil sp Belanak Mullets Scombroidae Scomberomorus commerson Tenggiri batang Barred spanish mackerel Scomberomorus gittatus Tenggiri papan Spotted spanish mackerel Sciaenidae Otolithoides biauritus Gelam jarang gigi Bronze croaker Otolithes ruber Tengkerong Tiger-toothed croaker Stromateidae Pampus argenteus Bawal puteh Silver pomfret Pampus chinensis Bawal tambak Chinese silver pomfret Carangidae Parastromateus niger Bawal hitam Black pomfret Scomeroides tala Talang Barred queenfish Lutjanidae Lutjanus sp Merah Red snapper Lutjanus johnii Jenahak Johni snapper Serranidae Epinephalus sp Kerapu Groupers Tetradontidae Lagacephalus wheeli Buntal pisang Toadfish Centropomidae Lates calcarifer Siakap Giant sea perch Muraenesocidae Muraenesox cinereus Malong Pike conger eel Penaeidae Udang Penaeid shrimps Portunidae Portunus pelagicus Ketan renjong Swimming crab

132 APPENDIX A Data of Fish 115 Table A2: Types of fish landed at Teluk Wawasan fishing jetty. Family Species Local Common Ariidae Arius thallasinus Duri pulutan Catfish Arius arius Pedukang Catfish Arius maculatus Duri Catfish Cynoglossidae Gynoglossus arel Lidah Large scale tongue sole Plotosidae Plotosus canius Sembilang Canine catfish eel Polynemidae Eleutheronem tetradactylum Senagin Fourfingers threadfin Dasyatidae Dasyatis sp Pari Stingray Mugillidae Liza vaigiensis Loban Squaretail mullet Mugil sp Belanak Mullets Scombroidae Scomberomorus commerson Tenggiri batang Barred spanish mackerel Scomberomorus gittatus Tenggiri papan Spotted spanish mackerel Sciaenidae Gelam jarang Otolithoides biauritus gigi Bronze croaker Otolithes ruber Tengkerong Tiger-toothed croaker Stromateidae Pampus argenteus Bawal puteh Silver pomfret Pampus chinensis Bawal tambak Chinese silver pomfret Carangidae Parastromateus niger Bawal hitam Black pomfret Scomeroides tala Talang Barred queenfish Lutjanidae Lutjanus sp Merah Red snapper Lutjanus johnii Jenahak Johni snapper Serranidae Epinephalus sp Kerapu Groupers Tetradontidae Lagacephalus wheeli Buntal pisang Toadfish Centropomidae Lates calcarifer Siakap Giant sea perch Muraenesocidae Muraenesox cinereus Malong Pike conger eel Penaeidae Udang Penaeid shrimps Portunidae Portunus pelagicus Ketan renjong Swimming crab

133 APPENDIX B Indices of species richness and evenness for Zooplankton 116 Table B1: Mean total biomass pf zooplankton (mg/m 3 ), species richness, Margalef index (D) and Shannon-Weiner index (H ), and eveness Pielou s index (J ) during high tide. Site Wet Biomass D H' J' mg/m 3 Upstream Middle stream Downstream Table B2: Mean total biomass pf zooplankton (mg/m 3 ), species richness, Margalef index (D) and Shannon-Weiner index (H ), and eveness Pielou s index (J ) during low tide. Site Wet Biomass D H' J' mg/m 3 Upstream Middle stream Downstream

134 APPENDIX C ANOVA analysis 117 Table C1: ANOVA analysis between distance and Water Quality Index (WQI) during high tide with 95 % confident level (P <0.05) Distance from Station 1 WQI Anova: Two-Factor Without Replication SUMMARY Count Sum Average Variance Row Row Row Row Row Row Row Column Column ANOVA Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit Rows Columns E Error Total

135 APPENDIX C ANOVA analysis 118 Table C2: ANOVA analysis between distance and Water Quality Index (WQI) during low tide with 95 % confident level (P <0.05) Distance from WQI Station Anova: Two-Factor Without Replication SUMMARY Count Sum Average Variance Row Row Row Row Row Row Row Column Column ANOVA Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit Rows Columns E Error Total

136 APPENDIX C ANOVA analysis 119 Table C3: ANOVA analysis between Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) during high tide with 95 % confident level (P <0.05) DO BOD Anova: Two-Factor Without Replication SUMMARY Count Sum Average Variance Row Row Row Row Row Row Row Column Column ANOVA Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit Rows Columns Error Total

137 APPENDIX C ANOVA analysis 120 Table C4: ANOVA analysis between Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) during low tide with 95 % confident level (P <0.05) DO BOD Anova: Two-Factor Without Replication SUMMARY Count Sum Average Variance Row Row Row Row Row Row Row Column Column ANOVA Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit Rows Columns Error Total

138 121 APPENDIX D Times and Height of High Tide and Low Tide water on Sungai Batu Pahat

139 122 APPENDIX D Times and Height of High Tide and Low Tide water on Sungai Batu Pahat

140 123 APPENDIX E Examples of planktonic life and macroinvertebrates that had been caught within study area Figure E1: Biddulphia sp. (Bacillariophyceae-phytoplankton) Figure E2: Codonella sp. (Bacillariophyceae-phytoplankton) Figure E3: Ceratium sp. (Dinophyceae-phytoplankton) Figure E4: Brachionus sp. (Rotifera-zooplankton) Figure E5: Copepoda sp. (Crustacea-zooplankton) Figure E6: Ostracoda sp. (Crustacea-zooplankton)

141 124 APPENDIX E Examples of planktonic life and macroinvertebrates that had been caught within study area Figure E7: Cladoceran sp. (Crustacea-zooplankton) Figure E8: Sagitta sp. (Chaetognatha -zooplankton) Figure E9: Nereis sp. (Polycate-Benthos) Figure E10: Yoldia sp. (Bivalve -benthos) Figure E11: Nasarius sp. (Gastropod-Benthos)