Concentrations and Emissions of Airborne Dust in Livestock Buildings in Northern Europe
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1 J. agric. Engng Res. (1998) 70, Concentrations and Emissions of Airborne Dust in Livestock Buildings in Northern Europe H. Takai ; S. Pedersen ; J. O. Johnsen ; J. H. M. Metz ; P. W. G. Groot Koerkamp ; G. H. Uenk ; V. R. Phillips ; M. R. Holden ; R. W. Sneath ; J. L. Short ; R. P. White ; J. Hartung ; J. Seedorf ; M. Schro der ; K. H. Linkert ; C. M. Wathes Danish Institute of Animal Science, Research Centre Bygholm, Dept of Agricultural Engineering, PO Box 536, DK-8700 Horsens, Denmark; Instituut voor Milieu- en Agritechniek, Postbus 43, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands; Silsoe Research Institute, Wrest Park, Silsoe, Bedford MK45 4HS, UK; Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover, Institut fu r Tierhygiene und Tierschutz, Bu nteweg 17 p, Hannover, Germany (Received 27 August 1996; accepted in revised form 23 December 1997) Field surveys of dust concentrations within and dust emissions from cattle, pig and poultry buildings were conducted in England, the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany. Measurements of inhalable and respirable dust concentrations were made in 329 buildings. Concentrations of CO within and outside the buildings were also measured to estimate ventilation rates for dust emission calculations. Dust concentrations and emissions were affected significantly by housing type and animal species. Overall mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations were 0)38 and 0)07 mg/m in cattle buildings, 2)19 and 0)23 mg/m in pig buildings, and 3)60 and 0)45 mg/m in poultry buildings, respectively. Overall mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates from the buildings were 110 and 19 mg/h bovine, 111 and 14 mg/h pig, and 12 and 2 mg/h bird, respectively. Expressed per 500 kg liveweight, the values become, respectively, 145 and 24 mg/h for cattle; 762 and 85 for pigs; and 3165 and 504 for poultry. Seasonal effects on dust concentrations in and emissions from cattle buildings were weak. Dust concentrations in pig and poultry buildings were higher in winter than summer. emission rates from pig and poultry buildings were higher in summer than winter. Effects of season on respirable dust emission rates from pig and poultry buildings were small. concentrations in cattle buildings were higher in the day than at night, but effects differed between countries. Pig buildings showed higher dust (both inhalable and respirable) concentrations in the day than at night. Percheries and buildings for caged layers showed higher inhalable dust concentrations in the day than at night. However, dust concentrations in broiler houses were not affected by day and night. The high concentrations of inhalable dust in broiler houses, in percheries for hens and in slatted weaner and fattener houses for pigs give cause for concern for both stockman and animal health and performance Silsoe Research Institute 1. Introduction The continual development of intensive livestock production systems has been associated with increased stocking density and herd size. The concentration of aerial pollutants in livestock buildings normally increases as stocking density rises. Furthermore, this development has changed the working pattern of stockmen, leading to long exposures to aerial pollutants, thereby emphasizing the importance of good air quality in the workplace. Organic dusts in livestock buildings comprise grain and other plant-derived particles, animal hair, urine, faeces, microorganisms and other particles. Dust particles may carry hazardous material such as pathogenic bacteria, viruses, endotoxin 1 or other organic substances. Ammonia and odours may also be adsorbed on the dust particles. Viable bacteria and viruses carried into the air by dust particles may have a greater ability to survive, 2 and cause infection in the animal house and in neighbouring livestock buildings. Dust particles of biological substances (bioaerosols) show biological action indicated by viability, infectivity, allergenicity, toxicity or pharmacological activity. 3 There is also some interest in the effect of bioaerosols emitted from livestock buildings on public health /98/050059#19 $25.00/0/ag Silsoe Research Institute
2 60 H. TAKAI E¹ A ¼orker health and dust Pig farmers 4,5 and poultry workers 6 have a high prevalence of wheezing and symptoms of chronic bronchitis, and work in pig houses is associated with an acute 7,8 and chronic decline in human lung function. 9 A high content of organic dust has been suspected as the cause of workrelated respiratory symptoms such as asthma, organic dust toxic syndrome and chronic bronchitis in pig farmers. 10 Occupational exposure limits (OELs) are concentration limits established by national regulatory authorities to protect workers from exposure to hazardous contaminants. OELs for airborne particles are under review due to new sampling conventions (EN 481, European Standard 11 ) for particle size fractions which are to be used in the measurement of dust exposure. The total dust sampler which is used to assess OELs in many countries is being replaced by an inhalable dust sampler developed by the Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Edinburgh. Large particles are sampled with an efficiency of 50% by the inhalable dust sampler as compared with the low sampling efficiency of the total dust sampler. In Denmark, the OEL for organic dust has been established 12 at 3 mg/m, but only for total dust. Similarly, OELs are available for other European countries Animal health and productivity An adverse effect of organic dust on animal health and productivity has been suggested for many years, but there are few definitive studies. Swine respiratory diseases are influenced by a number of factors comprising climatic, 13 biological and management factors and airborne pollution. Lowering dust concentration may reduce the incidence of pneumonia in finishing pigs. Long-term comparative studies at one Danish commercial pig farm showed that a 50 75% reduction of respirable dust to the levels of 0)2 mg/m, achieved by spraying rapeseed oil, did not result in a further improvement of an already high pig performance. 14 The interaction between noxious gases, such as NH, and organic dust has been implicated in respiratory disorders of pigs. Doig and Willoughby 15 exposed piglets in environment chambers to 100 p.p.m. NH and organic dust ( mg/m ) and observed lesions in the nasal epithelium. Dust particles may also carry ammonia in a concentrated form into the respiratory system. Deposition of inhaled particles in the respiratory system is a function of the size of particles. In chickens, larger particles (3)7 7 μm) are captured in the upper respiratory tract, while smaller particles (0) μm) are deposited uniformly throughout the remainder of the respiratory system Building materials and equipment Dust collects on most building surfaces and may lead to a deterioration of building materials and equipment in livestock buildings. It can penetrate electronic devices and collect on temperature and humidity sensors of climate control systems. Dust can also collect on fan motors and may result in overheating. A study of corrosion of heat exchangers used in animal houses showed that water condensate and dust on the heat exchanger surfaces enabled microorganisms to grow and created a corrosive microenvironment Odour and dust Dust in livestock ventilation air has been implicated in transporting and even magnifying odour. Odorous molecules (odorants) are absorbed on particle surfaces and then desorbed in large local concentrations in the nasal epithelium, where the olfactory nerve cells are located. 18 Dust in pig houses contains volatile fatty acids (VFA), 19 which are assumed to be indicator compounds for odour. However, the relationship between dust concentration and odour intensity is not clear. 18 Further research on absorption and desorption of odorants on dust particle surfaces is needed to understand the relationship between odour and dust Object of the study The object of this study was to determine the dust concentrations within and emissions from pig, cattle and poultry buildings in England, the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany using a common method. This study was part of a larger project in which various aspects of environmental control and aerial pollutants in intensive livestock buildings were examined. An overview is given by Wathes et al Materials and methods 2.1. Measurement of dust concentration Details of the techniques used for sampling and measurement of dust concentration have been described in Phillips et al. 21 and the outline of the method is described here. The concentration of airborne dust was
3 EMISSIONS OF AIRBORNE DUST IN LIVESTOCK BUILDINGS 61 determined gravimetrically from the dust mass collected on a filter through which a known volume of air had passed. IOM dust samplers 22 were used to collect the inhalable dust fraction defined by European Standard EN 481. The respirable dust fraction, according to the Johannesburg Convention, was sampled by use of cyclone dust samplers (SKC Inc., Pennsylvania). The sampling rates were controlled by critical orifices 23 at 2)00 1/min $2% for the inhalable dust, and 1)90 l/min $2% for respirable dust. The samplers were connected to a multi-point dust sampling system to enable simultaneous collection of samples from seven different sampling positions. By using two sampling systems and timers, daytime (06 00 to h) and nighttime (18 00 to h) sampling was carried out. Each day and night measurement involved seven sampling points in a section of the building. Sampling points 1, 3 and 5 were located just above the animals breathing zone, while points 2, 4 and 6 were located at human head height. Sampling point 7 was close to a ventilation exhaust and defined as the outlet Data preparation, checking and missing values Data were first screened for incorrect values caused by equipment failure. Missing values also arose from the detection limits of the measuring method, which is affected mainly by the weighing technique available at the laboratories and weight changes of the filters following thermal and mechanical impaction during sampling and analysis. However, the influence of the weight changes of the filters on the measuring accuracy was minimized by subtracting the average weight change of three blank filters. 21 Negative values for dust concentrations were determined in a few cases, especially for low respirable dust concentrations. Although negative values express the variance of the data set, they are physically impossible. Negative dust concentrations also created difficulties with interpretation, when the data were log transformed before analyses of variance. They were therefore treated as missing values Estimates of dust emission Dust emission rate (mg/h) was estimated from the product of the mean daily dust concentration (mg/m ) measured near the air outlet (sampling point 7) and the daily mean ventilation rate (m /h), and expressed either per animal, per livestock unit (500 kg body weight) or per heat production unit (hpu: 1 kw heat production at 20 C). 24 The CO balance method 25 was used for estimation of the ventilation rate Statistical analysis and estimates of dust concentrations and dust emissions The average dust concentration and emission rates for individual buildings were calculated. The variance in the data seemed to be proportional to concentration so the data were transformed using natural logarithms before further statistical analysis. The analysis was based on simple multifactorial analysis of variance including all interactions between all factors, i.e. up to third-order (four factors: country, housing, season and sampling period) interactions for dust concentrations and secondorder (three factors: country, housing and season) interactions for dust emissions. The factors were divided into the following levels. Factor A: Country: England, The Netherlands, Denmark, Germany. Factor B: Housing: Cattle Dairy cows on litter, dairy cows in cubicles, beef cattle on litter, beef cattle on slats, calves on litter, calves on slats. Pig Sows on litter, sows on slats, weaners on slats, fatteners on litter, fatteners on slats. Poultry Layers in percheries, layers in cages, broilers on litter Factor C: Season: Summer, winter. Factor D: Sampling period: Day, night The combinations of the factors for interaction terms of the analysis are incomplete because not all combinations of the factors are present. Because of the way in which the data were collected, the analysis only allows for a single error term. Significance testing for main effects and interactions was made using variance ratios from an accumulated analysis of variance table. By using regression models, expected means corresponding to significant factors and their interactions were calculated, and results are presented on their natural scale, together with standard errors for each entry. The results are tabulated by significant interactions between the factors where appropriate. 3. Results 3.1. Dust concentrations in cattle buildings Dust concentrations in cattle buildings were generally low in all four countries (Table 1). The mean inhalable dust concentration in German cattle buildings was higher than in English, Dutch and Danish buildings, while the highest mean respirable dust concentration was
4 62 H. TAKAI E¹ A. Table 1 Mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations in English, Dutch, Danish and German cattle buildings concentration concentration Number of field Mean concentration Number of field Mean concentration measurements mg/m 3 measurements mg/m 3 England 36 0) )15 The Netherlands 64 0) )09 Denmark 63 0) )04 Germany 68 0) )05 Overall mean 231 0) )07 seen in English buildings. Overall, mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations were 0)38 and 0)07 mg/m, respectively. The results from the variance analysis of dust concentrations are shown in Table 2. For inhalable dust concentrations, there was a three-way interaction of country housing type season and a two-day interaction of country sampling period. Expected mean inhalable dust concentrations corresponding to the three-way interaction are given in Table 3. Winter values of inhalable dust concentrations in cubicle houses for dairy cows in England, The Netherlands and Denmark were lower than in cow houses with litter, while the converse was observed in German cow houses. Comparisons between seasons for dairy cows were only possible in The Netherlands and Denmark. concentrations in Dutch cow houses with litter were not affected by season, while in the cubicle houses dust concentrations were lower in summer. In Danish cow houses, inhalable dust concentrations decreased in summer in houses with litter and increased in summer in cubicle houses. Table 2 Significant effects on inhalable dust concentration and respirable dust concentration in cattle buildings concentration concentration A: Country *** *** B: Housing type *** ns. C: Season ns. ns. D: Sampling period *** ns. A B *** * A C ns. *** B C ns. ns. A D *** ns. B D ns. ns. C D ns. ns. A B C * ns. A B C D ns. ns. *** p(0)001, **p(0)01, *p(0)05, ns.:p'0)05. Dust concentrations in buildings for beef cattle on litter were measured only in English and German surveys, and expected mean inhalable dust concentrations ranged from 0)21 to 0)78 mg/m. concentrations in Dutch and Danish buildings for beef cattle on slats were not affected by season, i.e. the mean range was from 0)36 to 0)47 mg/m. The mean inhalable dust concentration in German buildings with a slatted floor for beef cattle was 1)01 mg/m. Mean inhalable dust concentrations for calf buildings ranged from 0)15 to 0)55 mg/m. In England and Denmark, inhalable dust concentrations in the day were about 50 60% higher than at night. In the Netherlands and Germany, inhalable dust concentrations in the day were only 10 20% higher than at night (Table 4). For respirable dust concentrations, there were two two-way interactions of country housing and country season (Table 2). Expected mean respirable dust concentrations corresponding to these two two-way interactions are given in Tables 5 and 6, respectively. In England, dairy cow houses with litter showed higher respirable dust concentrations than cubicle houses, while the converse was true in Germany. These was no effect of housing type in the Dutch and Danish cattle buildings. Mean respirable dust concentrations were in the range from 0)06 to 0)09 mg/m in the Netherlands and from 0)04 to 0)05 mg/m in Denmark. Mean respirable dust concentrations for English buildings for beef cattle and calves were 0)08 mg/m, and for German buildings they were about 0)04 mg/m. In England and the Netherlands, respirable dust concentrations were higher in summer, while the opposite was found in Denmark. The effect of season was not clear for the Germany buildings (Table 6) Dust concentrations in pig buildings Mean dust concentrations in pig buildings in the Netherlands and Denmark were slightly higher than in
5 EMISSIONS OF AIRBORNE DUST IN LIVESTOCK BUILDINGS 63 Table 3 Expected mean inhalable dust concentrations in cattle buildings corresponding to the three-way interaction of country (A) housing (B) season (C) Winter Summer Concentration mean Standard Concentration mean Standard Country Housing mg/m 3 concentration error mg/m 3 concentration error England Dairy, litter 0)29!1)24 0)194 Dairy, cubicles 0)10!2)29 0)194 Beef, litter 0)21!1)55 0)180 Beef, slats Calves, litter 0)16!1)83 0)208 0)15!1)88 0)180 Calves, slats The Netherlands Dairy, litter 0)28!1)26 0)180 0)33!1)12 0)180 Dairy, cubicles 0)22!1)49 0)180 0)14!1)96 0)180 Beef, litter Beef, slats 0)42!0)86 0)36!1)02 0)180 Calves, litter 0)180 Calves, slats 0)30!1)19 0)26!1)36 0)180 Denmark Dairy, litter 0)55!0)59 0)180 0)29!1)23 0)180 Dairy, cubicles 0)28!1)29 0)180 0)44!0)83 0)180 Beef, litter Beef, slats 0)47!0)75 0)180 0)43!0)84 0)180 Calves, litter 0)25!1)40 0)180 0)29!1)26 0)194 Calves, slats Germany Dairy, litter 0)49!0)71 0)180 Dairy, cubicles 1)22 0)20 0)180 Beef, litter 0)66!0)41 0)180 0)78!0)25 0)255 Beef, slats 1)01 0)01 0)180 Calves, litter 0)45!0)79 0)180 0)55!0)60 0)180 Calves, slats 0)51!0)67 0)180 0)33!1)10 0)180 England and Germany (Table 7). Overall mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations were 2)19 and 0)23 mg/m, respectively. There was a two-way interaction of country housing type. Dust concentrations were also affected by season and sampling period (Table 8). The mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations for all pig buildings were estimated to be 2)41 and 0)23 mg/m for winter, and 1)82 and 0)17 mg/m for summer, respectively. Daytime measurements showed higher dust concentrations than at night. The expected mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations were 2)49 and 0)23 mg/m during the day and 1)76 and 0)17 mg/m at night, respectively. The expected mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations corresponding to the two-way interaction of country and housing type are given in Table 9. Sow Table 4 Expected mean inhalable dust concentrations in cattle buildings corresponding to the two-way interaction of country (A) sampling period (D) Day Night Concentration Concentration Standard Country mg/m 3 mean concentration Standard error mg/m 3 mean concentration error England 0)27!1)32 0)124 0)11!2)25 0)134 The Netherlands 0)29!1)23 0)093 0)26!1)33 0)093 Denmark 0)51!0)68 0)092 0)25!1)38 0)093 Germany 0)70!0)35 0)091 0)58!0)55 0)091
6 64 H. TAKAI E¹ A. Table 5 Expected mean respirable dust concentrations in cattle buildings corresponding to the two-way interaction of country (A) housing (B) mean Standard Country Housing Concentration mg/m 3 concentration error England Dairy, litter 0)17!1)80 0)286 Dairy, cubicles 0)04!3)24 0)370 Beef, litter 0)08!2)57 0)286 Beef, slats Calves, litter 0)08!2)52 0)222 Calves, slats The Netherlands Dairy, litter 0)06!2)89 0)207 Dairy, cubicles 0)08!2)51 0)217 Beef, litter Beef, slats 0)09!2)45 0)207 Calves, litter Calves, slats 0)08!2)57 0)207 Denmark Dairy, litter 0)05!3)09 0)219 Dairy, cubicles 0)05!3)08 0)207 Beef, litter Beef, slats 0)04!3)34 0)207 Calves, litter 0)04!3)17 0)207 Calves, slats Germany Dairy, litter 0)03!3)37 0)309 Dairy, cubicles 0)08!2)51 0)286 Beef, litter 0)05!3)06 0)235 Beef, slats 0)04!3)23 0)309 Calves, litter 0)04!3)19 0)207 Calves, slats 0)03!3)45 0)207 buildings with slatted floors in Denmark had high mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations, 3)49 and 0)46 mg/m, respectively. Mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations in sow buildings, regardless of floor types, in other countries were lower, i.e. inhalable dust concentration ranged from 0)63 to 1)64 mg/m and 0)09 to 0)16 mg/m for mean respirable dust concentrations. Dust concentrations were also high in buildings with slatted floors for weaners and fatteners. In contrast, fattener buildings with litter had a lower concentration of dust Dust concentrations in poultry buildings Overall mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations in poultry buildings were 3)60 and 0)45 mg/m, respectively (Table 10). The mean inhalable dust concentration in Dutch and Danish poultry buildings were about 4)5 mg/m ; in English and German buildings they were from 2 to 3 mg/m. Dust concentrations in German poultry buildings were about the same as in pig buildings, while English, Dutch and Danish poultry buildings showed higher dust concentrations than pig buildings. Table 6 Expected mean respirable dust concentrations in cattle buildings corresponding to the two-way interaction of country (A) season (C) Winter Summer Concentration Concentration Standard Country mg/m 3 mean concentration Standard error mg/m 3 mean concentration error England 0)07!2)65 0)162 0)16!1)81 0)351 The Netherlands 0)07!2)73 0)144 0)09!2)44 0)151 Denmark 0)05!2)99 0)147 0)03!3)44 0)143 Germany 0)04!3)17 0)124 0)04!3)11 0)183
7 EMISSIONS OF AIRBORNE DUST IN LIVESTOCK BUILDINGS 65 Table 7 Mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations in English, Dutch, Danish and German pig buildings Number of field Mean concentration Number of field Mean concentration measurements mg/m 3 measurements mg/m 3 England 76 1) )24 The Netherlands 48 2) )25 Denmark 64 2) )26 Germany 68 1) )18 Overall mean 256 2) )23 Regarding inhalable dust concentrations, there were two two-way interactions of country housing type and housing type sampling period (Table 11). Inhalable dust concentrations were also affected by season. Regarding respirable dust concentrations, there was a twoway interaction of country housing type. The seasonal effect was also significant. Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations corresponding to the two-way interaction of country and housing type are given in Table 12. Mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations in buildings for caged layers were much lower than in percheries. In broiler houses, mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations for English and Dutch broiler houses were about 10 and 1 mg/m, respectively, while for the Danish and German broiler houses they were about 4 and 0)5 mg/m, respectively. These considerable variations in dust concentrations in percheries and broiler buildings suggest that there are some important conditions, e.g. feed, bedding materials and/or different behaviour of Table 8 Significant effects on inhalable dust concentration and respirable dust concentration in pig buildings concentration concentration A: Country *** ns. B:Housing type *** *** C: Season *** ** D: Sampling period *** ** A B *** *** A C ns. ns. B C ns. ns. A D ns. ns. B D ns. ns. C D ns. ns. A B C ns. ns. A B C D ns. ns. *** p(0)001, **p(0)01, *p(0)05, ns.:p'0)05. birds, which generated dust in some of the surveyed buildings. In percheries and in buildings for caged layers, there were clear differences in inhalable dust concentrations between day and night, in contrast with broiler houses (Table 13). The mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations for all poultry buildings were estimated to be 3)88 and 0)48 mg/m in winter, and 3)03 and 0)35 mg/m in summer, respectively Dust emissions Overall mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates from cattle, pig and poultry buildings are shown in Table 14. The results are expressed in three different ways, i.e. on an animal/bird, livestock unit and hpu basis. Results from an analysis of variance on dust emission rates are shown in Table 15. Two-way interactions of country housing type were clearly significant for inhalable dust emission rates for all livestock species. The significance of two-way interactions of respirable dust emission rates for cattle buildings was slightly less clear. This may be explained by lower dust concentrations found in cattle buildings. Dust emissions from cattle buildings were not affected by season, while there were significant seasonal effects on inhalable dust emission rates for pig and poultry buildings. Seasonal effects on respirable dust emission rates for pig buildings were not significant. For poultry buildings, the significance of seasonal effect on respirable dust emission rates was not clear (Table 15) Dust emissions from cattle buildings Mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates per 500 kg liveweight for cattle buildings are shown in Table 16. Mean inhalable dust emission rates for Dutch,
8 66 H. TAKAI E¹ A. Table 9 Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations in pig buildings corresponding to the two-way interaction of country (A) housing (B) Concentration mean Standard Concentration mean Standard Country Housing mg/m 3 concentration error mg/m 3 concentration error England Sows, litter 0)63!0)461 0)144 0)16!1)86 0)191 Sows, slats 0)86!0)154 0)145 0)09!2)36 0)234 Weaners, litter Weaners, slats 5)05 1)619 0)134 0)43!0)84 0)191 Fatteners, litter 1)38 0)323 0)134 0)15!1)89 0)191 Fatteners, slats 2)67 0)982 0)134 0)29!1)24 0)199 The Netherlands Sows, litter Sows, slats 1)20 0)185 0)134 0)13!2)05 0)191 Weaners, litter Weaners, slats 3)74 1)320 0)134 0)32!1)14 0)191 Fatteners, litter Fatteners, slats 2)61 0)959 0)134 0)24!1)41 0)191 Denmark Sows, litter Sows, slats 3)49 1)249 0)134 0)46!0)78 0)191 Weaners, litter Weaners, slats 3)37 1)214 0)134 0)15!1)88 0)191 Fatteners, litter 1)21 0)193 0)134 0)10!2)30 0)191 Fatteners, slats 2)08 0)732 0)134 0)16!1)86 0)191 Germany Sows, litter 1)64 0)496 0)134 0)12!2)10 0)191 Sows, slats 1)13 0)123 0)134 0)11!2)18 0)191 Weaners, litter Weaners, slats 2)80 1)030 0)134 0)29!1)25 0)191 Fatteners, litter Fatteners, slats 2)31 0)839 0)122 0)18!1)70 0)175 Danish and German cattle buildings were from 128 to 184 mg/h (500 kg), while they were about 100 mg/h (500 kg) for English buildings. Mean respirable dust emission rates for Danish and German buildings were less than 20 mg/h (500 kg), and were from 31 to 35 mg/h (500 kg) for English and Dutch buildings. Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates on a 500 kg liveweight basis for cattle buildings are shown in Table 17. Mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates for cow houses were in the range from 21 to 338 and 6 to 84 mg/h (500 kg), respectively. The highest expected mean inhalable dust emission rate was found Table 10 Mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations in English, Dutch, Danish and German poultry buildings Number of field Mean concentration Number of field Mean concentration measurements mg/m 3 measurements mg/m 3 England 48 3) )51 The Netherlands 50 4) )58 Denmark 32 4) )64 Germany 32 2) )19 Overall mean 162 3) )45
9 EMISSIONS OF AIRBORNE DUST IN LIVESTOCK BUILDINGS 67 Table 11 Significant effects on inhalable dust concentration and respirable dust concentration in poultry buildings concentration concentration A: Country *** *** B:Housing type *** *** C: Season ** ** D: Sampling period *** ns. A B *** *** A C ns. ns. B C ns. ns. A D ns. ns. B D *** ns. C D ns. ns. A B C ns. ns. A B C D ns. ns. *** p(0)001, **p(0)01, *p(0)05, ns.:p'0)05. for German cubicle cow houses, while English cow houses with litter showed the highest mean respirable dust emission rate. Dust emissions from cubicle cow houses in the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany were higher than cow houses with litter, while the converse was found in English cow houses. Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates for beef cattle buildings were in the range from 36 to 144 and 5 and 29 mg/h (500 kg), respectively. The inhalable dust emission rate for English buildings for beef cattle on litter was much lower than other beef cattle buildings in other countries. The highest mean respirable dust emission rate value was found for Dutch buildings for beef cattle on slats. Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates for calf buildings were in the range from 63 to 192 and 14 to 40 mg/h (500 kg), respectively. Mean inhalable dust emission rate for Danish calf buildings with litter was higher than for calf buildings in other countries Dust emissions from pig buildings Mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates on a 500 kg liveweight basis for pig buildings are shown in Table 18. Mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates from Danish pig buildings were 1102 and 117 mg/h (500 kg), respectively. English, Dutch and German pig buildings showed lower mean inhalable dust emission rates, mg/h (500 kg), and respirable dust emission rates, mg/h (500 kg). Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates on a 500 kg liveweight basis for pig buildings are shown in Table 19. Danish sow buildings with slatted floors and German sow buildings with litter showed much higher dust emissions, an inhalable dust emission rate of 949 and 753 mg/h (500 kg), respectively, than other sow buildings. These data suggest that there are some special conditions in some Danish and German sow buildings, which cause high dust emissions. Table 12 Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust concentrations in poultry buildings corresponding to the two-way interaction of country (A) housing (B) Concentration mean Standard Concentration mean Standard Country Housing mg/m 3 concentration error mg/m 3 concentration error England Layers, perchery 2)19 0)78 0)126 0)35!1)04 0)210 Layers, cage 1)53 0)43 0)126 0)21!1)55 0)217 Broilers, litter 9)92 2)29 0)126 1)14 0)13 0)188 The Netherlands Layers, perchery 8)78 2)17 0)126 1)26 0)23 0)196 Layers, cage 0)75!0)29 0)126 0)09!2)43 0)188 Broilers, litter 10)36 2)34 0)125 1)05 0)05 0)187 Denmark Layers, perchery 4)86 1)58 0)146 0)92!0)09 0)217 Layers, cage 1)64 0)49 0)252 0)23!1)46 0)376 Broilers, litter 3)83 1)34 0)126 0)42!0)88 0)188 Germany Layers, perchery Layers, cage 0)97!0)03 0)126 0)03!3)43 0)188 Broilers, litter 4)49 1)50 0)126 0)63!0)46 0)188
10 68 H. TAKAI E¹ A. Table 13 Expected mean inhalable dust concentrations in poultry buildings corresponding to the two-way interaction of housing (B) sampling period (D) concentration Sampling Concentration mean Standard period Housing mg/m 3 concentration error Day Layers, perchery 7)33 1)99 0)108 Layers, cage 1)51 0)41 0)110 Broilers, litter 7)18 1)97 0)091 Night Layers, perchery 2)82 1)04 0)108 Layers, cage 0)86!0)15 0)110 Broilers, litter 7)06 1)96 0)091 Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates for weaner buildings were in the range of and mg/h (500 kg), respectively. Weaner buildings in the Netherlands and Denmark had nearly double the dust emissions of English and German buildings. Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates for fattener buildings were in the range of and mg/h (500 kg), respectively. Dust emissions from fattener buildings were about the same, regardless of floor types (litter and slats) and country. The mean inhalable dust emission rate for all pig buildings in summer was estimated to be 586 mg/h (500 kg), which was about 30% higher than mean inhalable dust emission rate in winter, i.e. 435 mg/h (500 kg) Dust emissions from poultry buildings Mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates on a 500 kg liveweight basis for poultry buildings are shown in Table 20. Mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates from German poultry buildings were 2118 and 248 mg/h (500 kg), respectively. English, Dutch and Danish poultry buildings showed higher mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates, and mg/h (500 kg), respectively. Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates on a 500 kg liveweight basis for poultry buildings are shown in Table 21. Mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates for buildings for caged layers were in the range of and mg/h (500 kg), respectively. These are much lower than dust emission rates for percheries, with inhalable dust emission rates of mg/h (500 kg) and respirable dust emission rates of mg/h (500 kg). English and Dutch broiler buildings showed 2 3 times the inhalable dust emission rates of Danish and German broiler buildings. The mean inhalable dust emission rates in winter and summer were estimated to be 1590 and 2388 mg/h (500 kg), respectively. 4. Discussion 4.1. Dust concentrations in buildings Overall, the concentration of airborne dust of both inhalable and respirable fractions was higher in pig and poultry buildings than in cattle houses. The current recommendations for continuous exposure of livestock to dust specify a safe concentration for non-specific dust of 3)4 and 1)7 mg/m for inhalable and respirable concentrations, respectively. 26 The concentrations of inhalable dust in broiler houses are of the greatest concern in England and the Netherlands, since they exceeded the recommended level by a factor of three. On the other hand, inhalable dust concentrations for caged layers were well within the target value. Amongst pigs, weaners, and to a lesser extent, fatteners kept on slats were also exposed to hazardous concentrations of inhalable dust. At no times were concentrations of dust in cattle houses Table 14 Overall mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates in mg/h from cattle, pig and poultry buildings Cattle buildings Pig buildings Poultry buildings Inhalable Respirable Inhalable Respirable Inhalable Respirable dust dust dust dust dust dust Animal or bird basis Livestock unit (500 kg) basis hpu basis hpu"heat production unit, i.e. 1 kw heat production of animals at 20 C.
11 EMISSIONS OF AIRBORNE DUST IN LIVESTOCK BUILDINGS 69 Table 15 Significant effects on inhalable and respirable dust emission rates in livestock buildings Animal basis Livestock unit (500 kg) hpu basis Inhalable Respirable Inhalable Respirable Inhalable Respirable Cattle buildings A Country *** *** *** *** *** *** B Housing *** *** * ** ** * C Season ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. A B ** ns. *** * *** * A C ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. B C ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. A B C ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. Pig buildings A Country *** ns. *** * *** * B Housing *** *** *** * *** ns. C Season * ns. ** ns. * ns. A B *** *** *** *** *** ** A C ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. B C ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. A B C ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. Poultry buildings A Country ** *** * *** * *** B Housing *** *** *** *** *** *** C Season * ns. ** * ** * A B *** ** *** ** *** ** A C ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. B C ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. A B C ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. ns. *** p(0)001, **p(0)01, *p(0)05, ns.:p'0)05 hpu"heat production unit, i.e. 1 kw heat production of animals at 20 C. hazardous to cattle health. In pig and poultry buildings, winter ventilation rates are normally much lower than in summer, which lead to higher dust concentrations in winter than summer. Many cattle buildings use natural ventilation with little building insulation: air temperatures are low and relative humidity is high. The winter ventilation rate in such buildings can be relatively high. Dust concentrations in cattle buildings are therefore not affected greatly by season. The interaction between country and housing type showed consistently significant effects on dust concentrations, i.e. the effect of housing differs between countries. Environmental factors, such as ventilation parameters, feeding practices, bedding materials, dung and slurry handling can affect dust concentrations and may differ from country to country. For example, typical ventilation systems for pig buildings in Denmark and the Netherlands have air outlets in the roof, while in English buildings, air exhausts typically through side walls or end walls. Such differences will result in different air flow characteristics, which affect dust distribution Table 16 Mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates on a 500 kg liveweight basis for English, Dutch, Danish and German cattle buildings Number of field Mean emission rate Number of field Mean emission rate measurements mg/h (500 kg) measurements mg/h (500 kg) England The Netherlands Denmark Germany
12 70 H. TAKAI E¹ A. Table 17 Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates on a 500 kg liveweight basis in cattle buildings corresponding to the two-way interaction of country (A) housing (B) Emission rate mean Standard Emission rate mean Standard Country Housing mg/h (500 kg) emission rate error mg/h (500 kg) emission rate error England Dairy, litter 142!1)96 0)371 84!2)48 0)460 Dairy, cubicles 21!3)86 0)454 18!4)00 0)797 Beef, litter 36!3)81 0)454 26!3)64 0)797 Beef, slats Calves, litter 64!2)75 0)287 28!3)58 0)563 Calves, slats The Netherlands Dairy, litter 60!2)81 0)230 13!4)37 0)286 Dairy, cubicles 216!1)53 0)255 54!2)93 0)301 Beef, litter Beef, slats 144!1)94 0)230 29!3)55 0)286 Calves, litter Calves, slats 63!2)77 0)230 17!4)07 0)286 Denmark Dairy, litter 79!2)54 0)230 9!4)77 0)286 Dairy, cubicles 115!2)16 0)230 13!4)36 0)286 Beef, litter Beef, slats 78!2)55 0)230 5!5)23 0)317 Calves, litter 190!1)66 0)307 14!4)31 0)382 Calves, slats Germany Dairy, litter 76!2)57 0)321 6!5)10 0)398 Dairy, cubicles 338!1)09 0)321 29!3)55 0)398 Beef, litter 135!2)00 0)266 6!5)12 0)329 Beef, slats 117!2)14 0)321 7!4)98 0)398 Calves, litter 142!1)95 0)298 40!3)23 0)497 Calves, slats 192!1)65 0)230 22!3)81 0)330 For the statistical analysis, the unit of g/h (500 kg) was used. Cattle buildings and pig fattener buildings with litter were wetter than other building types, which was reflected 32 in the high relative humidity, above 70%, and low dust concentrations, i.e. inhalable dust concentrations of below 1)5 mg/m and respirable dust concentrations of below 0)2 mg/m. If the floor is wet, then the settled dust is bound on to the floor and may not become airborne after animal activity. A relative humidity above 70% may contribute to low dust concentrations due to a high equilibrium moisture content. As a considerable part of dust originates from feed, 33 it may be reasonable to assume that the characteristics of dust are similar to Table 18 Mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates on a 500 kg liveweight basis for English, Dutch, Danish and German pig buildings Number of field Mean emission rate Number of field Mean emission rate measurements mg/h (500 kg) measurements mg/h (500 kg) England The Netherlands Denmark Germany
13 EMISSIONS OF AIRBORNE DUST IN LIVESTOCK BUILDINGS 71 Table 19 Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates on a 500 kg liveweight basis in pig buildings corresponding to the two-way interaction of country (A) housing (B) Emission rate mean Standard Emission rate mean Standard Country Housing mg/h (500 kg) emission rate error mg/h (500 kg) emission rate error England Sows, litter 144!1)94 0)239 49!3)02 0)364 Sows, slats 121!2)11 0)241 13!4)37 0)544 Weaners, litter Weaners, slats 687!0)37 0)223 60!2)82 0)316 Fatteners, litter 561!0)58 0)223 73!2)62 0)342 Fatteners, slats 895!0)11 0) !2)02 0)364 The Netherlands Sows, litter Sows, slats 151!1)89 0)223 18!4)04 0)316 Weaners, litter Weaners, slats 1309!0)27 0) !2)10 0)316 Fatteners, litter Fatteners, slats 418!0)87 0)223 40!3)22 0)316 Denmark Sows, litter Sows, slats 949!0)05 0) !1)96 0)316 Weaners, litter Weaners, slats )31 0)223 51!2)97 0)316 Fatteners, litter 890!0)12 0)223 69!2)68 0)316 Fatteners, slats 604!0)50 0)223 57!2)86 0)316 Germany Sows, litter 753!0)28 0)223 46!3)09 0)316 Sows, slats 162!1)82 0)223 19!3)94 0)316 Weaners, litter Weaners, slats 724!0)32 0)223 69!2)67 0)316 Fatteners, litter Fatteners, slats 532!0)63 0)202 34!3)38 0)287 For the statistical analysis, the unit of g/h (500 kg) was used. those of grain. For example, the equilibrium moisture content of feed grain, i.e. barley or wheat is about 16% at 70% relative humidity. Above this moisture content, the grain contains bound and condensed water on its surface, 34 and the water molecules are attached only loosely. 35 If this is also true for dust particles, then at a relative humidity of 70%, they will contain bound and condensed water, which may cause the particles to aggregate together. A greater understanding of the relationship between relative humidity and dust concentration in livestock buildings requires further work on moisture sorption and desorption of dust particles. Table 20 Mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates on a 500 kg liveweight basis for English, Dutch, Danish and German poultry buildings Number of field Mean emission rate Number of field Mean emission rate measurements mg/h (500 kg) measurements mg/h (500 kg) England The Netherlands Denmark Germany
14 72 H. TAKAI E¹ A. Table 21 Expected mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates on a 500 kg liveweight basis in poultry buildings corresponding to the two-way interaction of country (A) housing (B) Emission rate mean Standard Emission rate mean Standard Country Housing mg/h (500 kg) emission rate error mg/h (500 kg) emission rate error England Layers, perchery )57 0) !0)76 0)434 Layers, cage 872!0)14 0) !1)82 0)332 Broilers, litter )83 0) !0)35 0)281 The Netherlands Layers, perchery )47 0) !0)38 0)281 Layers, cage 398!0)92 0)197 46!3)09 0)281 Broilers, litter )61 0) !0)32 0)271 Denmark Layers, perchery )41 0) !0)45 0)325 Layers, cage 642!0)44 0)395 82!2)50 0)562 Broilers, litter )62 0) !1)41 0)281 Germany Layers, perchery Layers, cage 633!0)46 0)197 24!3)73 0)299 Broilers, litter )03 0) !0)93 0)281 For the statistical analysis, the unit of g/h (500 kg) was used. The effects of floor type (litter, cubicle and slatted floor) on dust concentration in cattle and pig buildings were not consistent. In cattle buildings, dust concentrations were usually higher where bedding was used, except in Germany. The converse was normally true for pig buildings. For poultry, dust concentrations were higher in percheries compared with caged units. Bedding material binds dust particles when it is wet and some dust particles deposited on the bedding may be retained within the layer of straw. However, fine chopped straws may contain many small particles, which are produced during chopping. Wet weather during harvesting may result in poor straw quality, while straw bales which are washed out by rain before they brought into the storage are fragile, and pulverize easily. Poor storage allows mould growth, which will result in an increase of dust in the bedding material. Animal behaviour may also influence the dust generated from bedding materials. Young animals tend to be more active than older animals, 36,37 and may disperse a large among of dust from bedding. Further studies on the relationship between bedding materials and dust concentration would be useful and relevant not only to the potential of straw to affect dust concentration, but also to animal welfare. Faecal airborne dust can only be generated from dried faeces. Faeces on a slatted floor are normally dry due to effective drainage, and can be dispersed by animals. If the inside climate is very dry, as in winter, and if the drainage works effectively, the faeces can be dry even on a solid floor. In such a case, a solid floor, due to its greater surface area, may produce more faecal airborne dust than a slatted floor. Faeces dried on animals can also be dust sources. The effect of sampling period on inhalable dust concentrations was significant for all three livestock species. Pigs and poultry are diurnal animals whilst the activities of the stockman in livestock buildings are reduced during the night. Livestock are therefore less active during the night than the day. Their movement disperses settled dust from building surfaces, and causes an increase in dust concentration. 38 Coarse and heavy particles in inhalable dust settle quickly after the end of activity. Particles of respirable dust are smaller and may remain airborne for a longer time than inhalable dust. This may explain the slight effect of sampling period on respirable dust concentrations. The ratios of the concentrations of respirable to inhalable dust in poultry buildings were slightly higher than those for pig buildings. Percheries seemed to produce more respirable dust than other poultry buildings. Danish weaner buildings and German buildings for caged layers showed very low ratios, below 0)05. These variations indicate that dust in different livestock buildings comprise different components, which may also have different health effects. Therefore, a simple comparison of dust concentrations may not be
15 EMISSIONS OF AIRBORNE DUST IN LIVESTOCK BUILDINGS 73 appropriate to estimate health risks from dust in livestock buildings. The low proportion of respirable dust in some types of pig and poultry buildings may indicate the potential for reducing the respirable dust fraction, which is most harmful for human and animal health. Dust from different sources in a livestock building may have less respirable dust than poor quality bedding, while modifications to feed, such as the addition of fat, may influence the quantity of respirable dust particles. Ground grain may contain more respirable particles than rolled grain Dust emissions from livestock buildings The effects of the interaction between country and housing type on dust emission rate were consistent. As with dust concentrations, inhalable and respirable dust emission rates for cattle buildings were unaffected by season. Given that there were seasonal differences in ventilation rates, 39 then there must have been a corresponding variation in dust generation rates due to the quality and type of bedding and feed. Nevertheless, the total emissions of dust from cattle buildings are normally lower in summer than winter, because many cattle (mainly cows, heifers and beef cattle) are kept at pasture in summer. Dust emissions from grazing cattle were not measured, though they are likely to be lower than from cattle kept in buildings. The seasonal effects on inhalable dust emission rates for pig and poultry buildings were significant: emission rates were higher in summer than winter. In relation to the public health and infection risks, dust emission in winter is important, because the survival of some airborne microorganisms is greater in cold and humid weather. Furthermore, pig and poultry dust may comprise different components. In spite of the seasonal effect on respirable dust concentrations in pig and poultry buildings, respirable dust emission rates for pig buildings were not affected by season, and for poultry buildings the significance of the seasonal effect was less clear. The low respirable dust concentrations in summer were compensated by high ventilation rates, and vice versa in winter. emissions remained at the same level regardless of season. This indicates that the dust generation rate in pig and poultry buildings is possibly independent of season. Sow buildings with slatted floors in Denmark and with litter in Germany showed very high mean inhalable dust emission rates, and mean respirable dust emission rates in Danish buildings were also high. Percheries in England, the Netherlands and Denmark and broiler buildings in England and the Netherlands showed high mean inhalable and respirable dust emission rates. Increased livestock activity, high stocking density, spilled feed, poor bedding material and low humidity of building air are some of the conditions which can lead to high dust emissions. Further studies are needed to understand why some buildings emit much more dust than other buildings of the same type. The consequences of high dust emissions from these buildings for the rural environment needs to be considered. Assuming that the inhalable dust emission rate per cow in a cubicle is 120 mg/h (500 kg), 973 mg/h (500 kg) for a fattener on slats, and 3570 mg/h (500 kg) for a broiler chicken (averages for the four countries), then 8 fattener pigs and 30 broiler chickens have equivalent emissions to one cow. For typical herd sizes, dust emissions from the farms will be very different. For example, a typical dairy farm with 50 cows emits only 6 g/h, in contrast with 88 g/h from a typical pig farm with 500 pig fatteners, and 286 g/h from a broiler unit with birds. These estimates may contribute to the differences between livestock enterprises in terms of complaints from the public about malodours from livestock buildings Methods for reduction of dust in livestock buildings Concentrations of airborne contaminants are correlated with some environmental factors, such as ventilation parameters, feeding practices, bedding materials, dung and slurry handling and livestock activities. 38,45,46 If a uniform dust distribution within a ventilated livestock building is assumed, then the steadystate dust concentration, C, is given by a simple mass balance 30 C "C #(S!R)/Q (1) where C is the incoming air dust concentration, kg/m, S the dust generation rate, kg/s, R the dust removal rate (e.g. by filtering, settling, etc.), kg/s and Q the ventilation rate, m /s. 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