DAVID BRENNAN SUSTAINABLE PROCESS ENGINEERING CONCEPTS, STRATEGIES, EVALUATION, AND IMPLEMENTATION. Pan Stanford. Publishing

Transcription

1 DAVID BRENNAN SUSTAINABLE PROCESS ENGINEERING CONCEPTS, STRATEGIES, EVALUATION, AND IMPLEMENTATION Pan Stanford Publishing

2 Contents Acknowledgements Preface xvii xix Part A: Concepts Introduction to Part A 3 1 Sustainability Concepts The Concept of Sustainable Development Sustainability in the Context of the Process Industries Some Temporal Characteristics of Sustainability Time Horizons in Project Evaluation Time Horizons for Technology Development Time Dependence of Technology Improvement Robustness to Technological, Economic, and Regulatory Change Appraisal of Uncertainties (Technical, Business, and Environmental) The Sustainable Project or Industry Conflicts in Achieving Sustainability Objectives 16 2 Cleaner Production Introduction The Concept of'cleaner Production' The Product Life Cycle Hierarchy of Waste Management Concepts and Sources of Waste Concepts of Waste Process and Utility Waste Utility Waste and System Boundary Definition Packaging 27

3 vi Contents 2.6 Impacts ofwaste Classification of Waste Driving Forces for Cleaner Production Resistances to Introducing Cleaner Production Concluding Remarks 29 3 Industrial Ecology The Basic Concept of Industrial Ecology Energy and Materials Recovery from Waste Streams Resource Flow through the Economy Sulphur Flow in Australia Transport and Storage of Raw Materials and Products Marine Transport Road and Rail Transport Integrated Site Manufacture Some Examples of Industrial Ecology Initiatives Case 1: Hydrogen Utilisation from Refineries Case 2: Fertiliser Complex, Queensland, Australia Case 3: Industrial Integration at Kalundborg, Denmark Case 4: Industrial Symbiosis at Kwinana, Western Australia Concluding Remarks Problems: Part A 45 Part B: Strategies Introduction to Part B 53 4 Waste Minimisation in Reactors Introduction A Checklist for Reaction Systems and Reactors Chemistry of Process Route Conversion, Selectivity, and Yield Co-Product and By-Product Utilisation Impurities in Reactor Feedstocks Mixing of Reactants Mixing of Gaseous Reactants Mixing of Liquids Fluid Distribution in Packed Bed Reactors 62

4 Sulphuric Contents vil 4.6 Minimising Secondary Reactions Recycle of Unreacted Feed from Reactor Outlet Reversible Reactions Catalysis Example of the Effect of Catalyst Activity on Performance Agent Materials Case Examples Chlor-Alkali Production in Mercury Cell Transport Paths Other Aspects of the Mercury Cell Chlorine Process Ethylene Manufacture from Hydrocarbons Hydrogen Cyanide Manufacture from Ammonia, Methane, and Air Sulphuric Acid Manufacture PVC Production by Suspension Polymerisation of Vinyl Chloride Monomer Concluding Remarks 80 5 Waste Minimisation in Separation Processes Classification of Separation Processes Sources of Waste in Separation Processes Distillation Gas Absorption Adsorption Filtration Centrifugal Separation Filtration of Solids from Gas Streams Separation of Liquid Particulates from Gas Streams Drying Evaporation and Condensation Solid-Liquid Extraction Liquid-Liquid Extraction Useof Extraneous Materials Example of Extraneous Material Use Acid in Chlorine Drying Case Examples Case Example Solid Sodium Cyanide Plant 98

5 vlil 1 Contents Other Case Examples of Gas Absorption in Chemical Processes Case Examples in Distillation Concluding Remarks Identification of Waste in Utility Systems Introduction Fuels Fuel Combustion Heat of Combustion Excess Air Common Fuels Environmental Impacts of Flue Gases NO* Formation in Fuel Combustion Theoretical Flame Temperatures Furnaces Flare Stacks Steam Generation Steam Use Water Sources and Uses Water Quality Indicators Recirculated Cooling Water from Cooling Towers Sea Water Cooling Air Cooling Refrigeration Electricity Demand and Supply Distribution and Use of Electricity Compressed Air Inert Gas Vacuum Concluding Remarks 131 lergy Conservation Introduction 133 I Energy Consumption in Compression of Gases Process Specification for Gas Compressors Machine Selection Thermodynamics of Gas Compression Limits to Compression Ratio per Stage of Compression Intercooling of Gas during Compression 138

6 Contents ix Reliability Drives for Compressors Energy Conservation in Gas Compression Energy Consumption in Pumping of Liquids Process Specification for Pumps Power Requirement Pump Machine Types Centrifugal Pump Selection and Performance Energy Conservation in Pumping of Liquids Pressure Losses in Piping Sizing of Pipes Pressure Loss through Equipment Heat Exchangers Vapour-Liquid Contacting Columns Agitation and Mixing Heat Recovery Energy Recovery from High Pressure Streams Insulation Plant Layout Concluding Remarks Materials Recycling Introduction Recycling of Materials in Chemical Processes Economics of Recycling Process Streams Environmental Credits and Burdens of Recycling Closed Loop and Open Loop Recycling On-Site and Off-Site Recycling Examples ofoff-site Recycling Producer and Consumer Waste Hierarchical Approach to Materials Recycling Plastics Recycling Glass Recycling Recycling of Materials from Products Waste Treatment Option Aqueous Effluent Treatment and Water Recycling Disposal ofwastes Landfill Incineration Concluding Remarks 169

7 x Contents 9 Waste Minimisation in Operations Non-Flow-Sheet Emissions from a Process Plant Plant Start-Up Case Example Starting Up a Sulphuric Acid Plant Shut-Down of a Plant Abnormal Operation Plant Maintenance Cleaning of Plant and Equipment Fouling Transport and Storage of Raw Materials and Products Storage Tanks Major Environmental Incidents Arising from Storage Fugitive Emissions Environmental Risks Resulting from Storm Water Risks in Mining and Extraction of Materials Concluding Remarks 181 Problems: Part B 183 PartC: Evaluation 10 Life Cycle Assessment Introduction Product and Process Applications Basic Steps in Life Cycle Assessment Goal Definition Example ofsystem Boundary Determination Inventory Analysis Treatment of Utilities and Energy Allocation Procedures Example of Inventory Data Estimation Classification Further Discussion of Impact Categories Assignment and Weighting of Chemical Compounds Normalisation Improvement Analysis Some Challenges and Uncertainties in LCA Goal Definition Inventory Data 217

8 Marketable Contents xi By-Products or Waste? Impact Analysis Resource Depletion Normalisation Valuation Some Alternative or Supplementary Approaches to LCA EPS System with Inventory An Example of Evaluation Used Data Eco-Indicator LCA Software Concluding Remarks Life Cycle Assessment Case Studies Introduction Life Cycle Inventories for Common Utilities Assumptions by Golonka and Burgess Regarding Utility Systems Derived Inventory Data Inventory Data for Distinct Electricity Supply Systems Hydrotreating of Diesel Hydrotreating Process System Boundary Inventory Data Impact Assessment Environmental Burden versus Benefit Comparison Conclusions Safety Evaluation Introduction Importance of Learning from Accidents, Dangerous Occurrences Life Cycle Issues Health, Safety, and the Environment Examples of Safety Incidents in the Process Industries Involving Environmental Damage Accident Prevention The HAZOP Approach Techniques for Investigating Probability of Major Incidents Risk Assessment 257

9 xii Contents 12.9 Preventive Approaches Transport and Storage of Chemicals Government Legislation Concluding Remarks Assessment of Costs and Economics Introduction Investment Projects Capital Requirements and Sources Fixed Capital Costs Approximate Estimates of Plant Equipment Costs Contributions to Plant Costs Estimating Fixed Capital Costs of Plants Working Capital Costs Operating Costs Simplified Cost Model Classification of Production Costs Estimation of Production Costs Depreciation Capital Recovery Worked Example: Cost of Utilities Generation Environmental Management-Related Costs Cost Sheet Summary Revenue or Benefits Estimation Engineering for a Movable Target Profitability Case Example Economies of Scale Case Example in Scale Economies Environmental Externalities Estimating External Environmental Costs Emission Taxes and Emission Trading Schemes Life Cycle Costs of Projects Conclusions Sustainability Assessment Introduction Common Threads in Enviro-Economic Assessment 297

10 Contents xiii 14.3 Cost Benefit Approach to Enviro-Economic Assessment Quantifying Benefits and Burdens Case Examples in Enviro-Economic Assessment Case 1: Sulphuric Acid Manufacture Case 2: Product Improvement through Hydrotreating of Diesel Case 3: Power Generation from Fossil Fuels: CCGT-NG versus ST-Br Coal Environmental Effects of Scale of Production Sustainability Assessment and Sustainability Metrics Case Study on Sustainability of Electricity Generation Perception and Assessment of Risk Scenario Analysis Concluding Remarks 313 Problems: Part C 315 Part D: Implementation 15 Planning for Sustainable Process Industries Introduction Forecasting Scenario Development Technology Innovation Intensification Technology Diffusion Technology Evolution Rates of Change Transition to Renewable Feedstocks Site Selection for Process Plants Integration of Process Plants and Process Industries Distributed Manufacture Case ofaqueous Sodium Cyanide Production at the Point of Use Government Legislation Stakeholder Engagement Lifestyle Implications 341

11 xlv Contents 16 Process Design and Project Development Introduction The Design Process Process Flow Sheet Development Defining the Need Creating Plausible Solutions Screening of Alternatives Further Evaluation of Selected Options Optimisation and Scrutiny of Final Solution Criteria for Process Flow Sheet Evaluation Technical Feasibility Capital Cost Operating Costs Safety Environmental Sustainability Reliability Operability Process Flow Sheet Documentation Piping and Instrumentation Diagram Project Development Acceptability Criteria for Projects Technical Requirements Economic Viability Safety Environmental Sustainability Integrating Criteria Assessments Concluding Remarks Operations Management Operational Phase of a Process Plant Plant Maintenance Environment Management Systems Commitment and Policy Planning Implementation Measurement and Evaluation Review and Continuous Improvement 374

12 17.4 Environment Improvement Plan Examples of EIPs 17.5 Responsible Care 17.6 Environmental Performance Monitoring 17.7 Emergency Response Planning 17.8 Sustainability Reporting 17.9 Emissions Reporting Concluding Remarks Problems: Part D Index oftopics Index ofcases Index ofset Problems