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1 30 W E & T w w w. w e f. o r g / m a g a z i n e 2009 Water Environment & Technology All rights reserved

2 Evaluating Greenhouse Gas Emissions An inventory of greenhouse gases is an important piece of the sustainability puzzle Patricia Scanlan, Holly Elmendorf, Andrew Shaw, and Steve Tarallo Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from wastewater treatment processes have become a greater concern and are increasingly being calculated and evaluated when determining the long-term sustainability of a treatment scheme. While GHG inventories are currently a topic of significant interest, they are only one factor of overall sustainability. The entire sustainability picture can be described using the triple-bottom-line approach. This approach can be illustrated as a three-legged stool, with environmental, social, and economic issues each constituting a leg. A sustainable solution adequately addresses all three of these aspects. GHG inventories, which are a factor in the environmental leg, are most often based on the Kyoto Protocol. This agreement, which became effective in 2005 for those countries that ratified it, had the objective of achieving stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations to prevent climate change resulting from human activity. As part of this protocol, participating countries by 2012 will reduce their GHG emissions to 5% below their 1990 levels, on average. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has published guidelines that have become the standard methodology for performing GHG inventories on a national basis. Various governmental and nongovernmental organizations, including the World Resources Institute (WRI; Washington, D.C.) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, have published more detailed instructions for conducting GHG inventories on a subnational (economic sector, corporate, municipality, facility) level. Several organizations, including ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability (Toronto), the California Climate Action Registry (Los Angeles), the California Air Resources Board, and the Climate Registry (Los Angeles) partnered to develop the Local Government Operations Protocol (LGOP). This protocol will further identify and standardize inventory procedures, including some specific to wastewater treatment. It is due to be finalized this summer. GHG emission assessments entail performing an inventory of all GHGs emitted by the organization or industry and then applying the appropriate global-warming potential (GWP) value to each gas. The GWP is a relative value, based on carbon dioxide having a value of 1. Although the GWPs of the GHGs have been updated in the 2001 and 2007 IPCC reports, the GWP values presented in the Second Assessment Report from the IPCC, published in 1996, are used as the standard values. As shown in Table 1 (p. 32), GWP varies significantly, depending on the type of gas. Consequently, a small quantity of emitted gas with a high GWP can have a substantial effect on the GHG inventory. Scope Definitions The WRI protocol and LGOP use a system that enables ready comparison between organizations based on three categories, or scopes. Separating emissions into discrete categories helps minimize the potential for double-counting of emissions Water Environment & Technology All rights reserved A P R I L

3 Table 1. Global Warming Potential of Greenhouse Gases Gas Atmospheric lifetime (years) Carbon dioxide Methane Nitrous oxide IPCC = Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. GWP = global warming potential IPCC GWP Scope 1 includes direct GHG emissions from sources that are owned and controlled by the wastewater utility. These include process emissions, such as nitrous oxide emissions from liquid-stream treatment, combustion of natural gas or biogas, methane and nitrous oxide from biosolids combustion, emissions from liquid-stream processes, and vehicle use for company business. Scope 1 includes fugitive emissions from flares and other processes that are owned or operated by the utility. If the utility generates power onsite using biogas, emissions associated with the generation process are included in this category. Non-GHG emissions, such as nitrogen oxides, are not included in this category. Scope 2 is limited to indirect emissions associated with purchased electricity. While the GHG emissions occur at the facility where the electricity is generated, rather than the point of use, the using organization is responsible for including the emissions in its GHG inventory. Scope 3 is an optional reporting category, but it may include large inventories of GHG emissions. Scope 3 includes all indirect GHG emissions other than electricity use. Scope 3 emissions are a result of the operations and practices of the organization, but the sources of the emissions are not owned or controlled by the organization. Because tracking and accounting for Scope 3 emissions are optional, not all items have to be included. However, tracking activities that are major emissions sources can provide valuable information to help with process and technology decisions. It can be difficult to assess Scope 3 emissions accurately, because there may not be a direct cause-and-effect relationship between the organization s actions and these emissions. The scope definition concept allows optional reporting of items in Scope 3, so organizations can limit the items tracked in Scope 3 to those that have a significant contribution to the total GHG inventory. Not all GHGs emitted by an organization or industry are expected to increase the greenhouse effect, so not all are included in the GHG inventory. Based on the IPCC and WRI methodologies, a GHG inventory includes only anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions resulting from the use of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide from the combustion of biogenic material (such as biosolids) is not included in the inventory. Because the handling and combustion of biogenic material can generate nitrous oxides from incomplete combustion or biological oxidation and fugitive methane from leaks that would not normally occur under natural degradation processes, these nitrous oxide and methane emissions from biogenic combustion are included in the inventory as Scope 1 or Scope 3 items, as appropriate. While biogenic carbon dioxide is not reported in Scope 1 or Scope 3, LGOP requires separate reporting of biogenic carbon dioxide emissions. Evaluation in Gwinnett County, Ga. The results of a biosolids evaluation for the Gwinnett County (Ga.) Department of Water Resources (DWR; see Table 2, below) illustrate the impact that GHG emissions may have on the decision-making process. The Gwinnett DWR consists of three treatment facilities: the F. Wayne Hill Water Reclamation Center, the Yellow River Water Resource Facility, and the Crooked Creek Water Resource Facility. The evaluation encompassed four biosolids processing and disposal alternatives: landfill disposal, land application, heat drying, and thermal destruction. All solids generated at the F. Wayne Hill facility were anaerobically digested in existing digesters for all alternatives. Table 2. Average Plant Flows and Estimated Raw Solids Production Parameter F. Wayne Hill Yellow River Crooked Creek Average annual design flow (mgd) Solids production (dry ton/d) Raw primary sludge + waste activated sludge. 2 Waste activated sludge only. 32 W E & T w w w. w e f. o r g / m a g a z i n e 2009 Water Environment & Technology All rights reserved

4 Figure 1. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Based on Scope Definition CO 2 = carbon dioxide. Anaerobic digestion also was performed at the Yellow River facility for all alternatives, with the exception of thermal destruction. Energy recovery through cogeneration can be used to reduce Scope 2 emissions and the plant operating costs to the treatment plant and was evaluated for landfill disposal and the land application options. Although waste heat can be recovered from an incinerator to produce electricity, no power production was included in the evaluation of thermal destruction. Emissions not considered in this evaluation include those associated with staff transportation and travel, energy associated with dewatering return-stream treatment, and energy from manufacture of chemicals for sidestream treatment and odor control. Embodied energy of the equipment and facilities which refers to the quantity of energy required to manufacture, transport, and install a product, material, or service were not included. Embodied carbon information can be difficult to collect but may be available from the equipment manufacturer. When unavailable, it is often estimated based on energy factors for specific materials of construction, such as concrete, steel, specific chemicals, and the mass of the material used. Embodied carbon can provide a significant contribution to systems with low process emissions, such as pipelines and reservoirs. However, it seems to provide a relatively small contribution to wastewater processes typically less than 10% of the total. Consequently, Table 3. Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Treatment System All values in Mg carbon dioxide/yr Landfill Landfill with cogeneration Land application with cogeneration Heat drying Mobile sources Incineration Electricity 17, ,200 21,170 Stationary sources Fugitive emissions Landfill 19,470 19, Incineration Polymer use Fertilizer offset - - (2570) (2140) - Total 40,540 31, ,700 28, Water Environment & Technology All rights reserved A P R I L

5 Figure 2. Evaluation Results the level of effort required to generate embodied carbon information must be weighed against the benefit it will provide to the evaluation. The impacts of dewatering return streams, which can affect the carbon footprint, were estimated to be similar for most of the evaluated alternatives, with the exception of thermal destruction. These impacts were not included in the evaluation. If return-stream impacts were included, the thermal destruction GHG total would decrease relative to the other options. It is important to identify and document what has been included in the Scope 3 evaluation, not only to allow apples to apples comparisons, but to ensure that future changes in emission factors or inventory protocols can be updated easily. The results of the GHG evaluation are presented in Figure 1 (p. 33), and a breakout of the emissions by source is presented in Table 3 (p. 33). Based on the results of this evaluation, heatdrying has the highest GHG signature, followed by landfill disposal and thermal destruction. Although landfill-gas collection is included, much of the methane generated from landfilled biosolids is expected to occur while the disposal cell is active, making methane capture difficult. Use of cogeneration with landfill or land application options reduces the Scope 2 emissions by For Further Reading Welp, James, William Fernandes, William Angoli, Biju George, Michael Heitz, and James Rowan (2007). Reducing Greenhouse Gas From Sewage Solids Incinerators, Proceedings, WEFTEC.07. Alexandria, Va.: Water Environment Federation. approximately 50%. Biogenic carbon dioxide emissions, calculated based on 1950 kg/mg volatile solids, while not included in Scope 1 through Scope 3, would result in an additional 48,000 Mg/ yr of GHG emissions for all alternatives. Information on GHG emissions can be important in making decisions, but it is only part of the total sustainability concept. To address the whole concept, social and economic factors, as well as other environmental factors, must be considered. The project team compared the Gwinnett DWR alternatives and assigned each of the three major categories environmental, social, and economic equal weight. Individual criterion weights and scores were assigned based on estimated costs and GHG emission information developed during the evaluation and engineering judgment. The results of the sustainability evaluation are presented in Figure 2 (above). As indicated, thermal destruction and heat drying have the highest overall sustainability scores, but the individual category contributions are very different, with thermal destruction having a better economic score but lower social acceptance. Land application, which has the highest environmental score, is not considered to be sustainable due to its low social acceptance, which in this case is most heavily influenced by availability of suitable application sites. The weighting process, which is highly subjective and stakeholder-specific, can have a significant impact on the results. Putting It All Together Consideration of treatment alternatives now commonly includes estimates of GHG emissions. Available guidance documents and protocols can be used to calculate GHG values; however, 34 W E & T w w w. w e f. o r g / m a g a z i n e 2009 Water Environment & Technology All rights reserved

6 Smith Aerial Photos these estimates are dynamic, because factors and guidance documents are being modified and expanded continuously. Utilities, therefore, should include supporting information in GHG estimates to identify specific factors and calculation methodologies used, as well as the Scope 3 basis of calculation. Inputs for Scope 1 and Scope 2 processes are relatively easy to obtain, either through actual measurements or projected consumption and emissions. Many Scope 3 variables, however, require a more subjective evaluation. When selecting the best fit alternative for a treatment system from a truly sustainable perspective, the impacts of GHG emissions must be taken into account in balance with all other factors, including economic and social issues. Currently, the long-term sustainability of a wastewater treatment system often is driven by cost and biosolids final-use outlets, rather than GHG emissions. Changes in the political climate (such as regulation or local ordinances) and economic conditions will affect the relative weights that stakeholders place on factors, including GHG emissions. These factors are all pieces of the puzzle that drive the selection process and the search for a sustainable treatment solution. Patricia Scanlan is director, Residual Treatment Technologies, and Andrew Shaw is a senior wastewater process specialist at Black & Veatch (Kansas City, Mo.). Holly Elmendorf is director, Water Reclamation Division, at the Gwinnett County (Ga.) Department of Water Resources. Steve Tarallo is senior wastewater process specialist in the Gaithersburg, Md., office of Black & Veatch. Additional Resources For more information on this topic, see the Water Environment Federation s Sustainability Knowledge Center at TechnologyResources/AccessWaterKnowledge/ Sustainability. The F. Wayne Hill Water Reclamation Center is one of three facilities included in a biosolids evaluation for the Gwinnett County (Ga.) Department of Water Resources Water Environment & Technology All rights reserved A P R I L

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