Experimental Analysis of Integrated System of Membrane Distillation for Pure Water with Solar Domestic Hot Water

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1 Experimental Analysis of Integrated System of Membrane Distillation for Pure Water wit Solar Domestic Hot Water Muammad Asim Master of Science Tesis KTH Scool of Industrial Engineering and Management Energy Tecnology EGI MS Division of Heat and Power Tecnology SE STOKHOLM

2 Master of Science Tesis EGI MS Experimental Analysis of Integrated System of Membrane Distillation for Pure Water wit Solar Domestic Hot Water Muammad Asim Approved Date Examiner Prof Dr Andrew Martin ommissioner Supervisor Mr N T Uday Kumar ontact person Mr N T Uday Kumar Abstract In G countries, especially in UAE desalination of sea water is considered to be one of te most effective and strategic alternative for satisfying te current and future demand of water for domestic purposes. Te depletion of ground water aquifers, rapid industrial development and increase of urban population in UAE lead to tremendous increase in fres water demand during past decade. Altoug, desalinated fres water is supplied to te consumers by local municipalities, people in te region rely mostly on bottled water for drinking purpose obtained troug post desalination re-processing. Tousands of suppliers in UAE deliver bottled water to omes or offices tus leading to environmental unsustainability in te wole conversion cain from desalinated water to bottling, packaging and delivery. In fact, UAE is one of te leading countries in per capita bottle water consumption. Terefore, a need as been observed to provide safe drinking water for ouseolds in a sustainable way. In order to produce drinking water at omes, a concept of integrating Membrane Distillation (MD) based water purification wit Solar Domestic Hot Water (SDHW) systems as been proposed and its feasibility as been evaluated in tis researc study. Present application is for a single family ouse/villa in UAE region tat requires 20 l/day of drinkable water and 250 l/day of ot water for domestic purpose. An experimental pilot system as been installed at SEM-uae for evaluating different operational parameters of suc integrated system and also to determine overall termal performance of te system. Te study provides detailed design of experimental unit, procurement, installation and commissioning of te SDHW-MD integrated system along wit estimated annual profiles of pure water and overall energy consumption. Experiments performed for one mont during summer and distillate fluxes of around l/m 2 /our as been obtained wit optimum MD ot and cold side flow rates of 6 and 3 l/min respectively and at ot side temperatures ranging from o wit cold side average temperature of 35 o. Wit recovery of cold side eat of MD unit, 25% of daily demand of DHW could be reduced and ence te estimated annual combined energy demand of 8220 kw could be sufficiently fulfilled wit eiter 8.5 m 2 aperture area of Flat plate solar termal collectors or wit 7.5 m 2 of Evacuated tubular collectors. -2-

3 Acknowledgement First of all I would like to tank KTH and SEM-UAE for providing me wit an opportunity to work in an environment tat is totally based on Energy Researc and Development and allowing me to do te Master s Tesis in SEM-UAE. I would like to offer a sincere gratitude to Dr Hamid Kayal and Mr N T Uday Kumar for guiding me and providing me wit te necessary facilities for te accomplisment of te project. I would also like to tank Mr Uday Kumar, my SEM-UAE and KTH supervisor, to elp me in every aspect bot from teoretical side and from practical side, explaining from te basic ideas of Membrane Distillation extending up to te Solar Driven Membrane Distillation System and guiding me trougout te installation of te pilot plant for experimentation analysis. Furtermore, I would like to tank Mr Rajes Reddy and Sujata Daal, te engineering staff members of SEM-UAE, for guiding me and elping me regarding some important tings in writing and compiling tesis and providing me wit te tecnical ideas tat really elped me a lot during my stay in SEM-UAE. I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to my parents and spouse wo motivated me trougout and played a big role in pursuing my goal. Special tanks to Dr Andrew Martin wo guided and provided me wit is expertise in te field wic was very elpful in my researc work. -3-

4 Table Of ontents Abstract... 2 Acknowledgement... 3 Table of ontents.4 List of Figures...6 List of Tables.8 Nomenclature 9 1 Introduction Introduction Researc objective Metodology Literature Review General Desalination Tecniques Termal Processes Membrane Tecnologies Membrane Distillation Tecniques Solar Termal Heating Systems Direct and Indirect Systems Active and Passive Systems Solar Termal ollectors for DHW Wy Membrane Distillation System Wy Solar Domestic Hot Water System Design,Procurement and Installation of Integrated SDHW-MD System Design of Experimental Field Setup Solar Termal ollector ircuit wit Termal Storage Solar Domestic Hot Water ircuit Membrane Distillation ircuit Identification and Procurement of Plant omponents Installation and ommissioning of Pilot Plant Standard Operating Procedure For Plant Start Up Experimental Analysis of SDHW-MD System Experimental Approac Results and Discussions Effect of Hot and old Flow Rates on Distillate Flow Effect of Hot and old Side Temperature on Flux 30-4-

5 Daily Distillate Profile and ot and cold Feed Temperatures Effect of Feed Water onductivity Purification of Grey Water in Termal Store Termal Energy Balance of SDHW-MD System PolySun Simulation Model MD Energy Sink Profile Domestic ot Water Profile old Water Profile Termal Energy Balance:omparison of Experimental Data wit Simulations Flat Plate ollector Evacuated Tube ollector Annual Simulations to Determine Optimum ollector Area Determination of Optimum ollector Area for SDHW-MD System Annual Water Production and Energy Demand Profile Optimum ollector Area Determination onclusions and Recommendations onclusions and Recommendations for Future Work References Appendix Appendix 2 49 Appendix

6 List of Figures Figure 1-1: Te process of Bottling Water in UAE 10 Figure 1-2: Solar ombi Systems for Hot and Dry Regions..11 Figure 2-1: Desalination tecniques based on type of Energy used..13 Figure 2-2: Energy consumption in different types of desalination tecniques. 13 Figure 2-3: Global Desalination apacity. 14 Figure 2-4 : Multi Stage Flas Process Figure 2-5: Multi Effect Distillation Process. 15 Figure 2-6 : Mecanical Vapor ompression Figure 2-7: Principle of Reverse Osmosis. 16 Figure 2-8: Direct ontact Membrane Distillation (DMD)...18 Figure 2-9: Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD). 18 Figure 2-10: Sweeping Gap Membrane Distillation (SGMD)...18 Figure 2-11: Vacuum Membrane Distillation (VMD)...19 Figure 2-12: Air Gap Membrane Distillation Tecnique...21 Figure 2-13: Sketc of Laboratory Scale MD Module...21 Figure 2-14: Side View of MD assette Module...22 Figure 2-15: PTFE Membrane assette..22 Figure 2-16: Solar Insolation in Ras Al Kaima - UAE (W/m 2 ) (Data of SEM-UAE)..23 Figure 3-1: Metodology for te Integrated SDHW-MD System. 24 Figure 3-2 (a): Installation of Flat Plate Solar Termal ollector Frames 27 Figure 3-2 (b): Orientation, Placement and Angle adjustment of ollectors..27 Figure 3-2 (c): Existing Installation of ET at SEM-UAE Figure 3-2 (d): Existing Stratified Solar Termal Storage Tank wit Various Pipe ircuit onnections.27 Figure 3-2 (e): old Water Storage Tank (Municipal Water Supply) Figure 4-1: Distillate Flow vs Delta T 30 Figure 4-2: MD Hot and old Feed Temperature vs Distillate Flux

7 Figure 4-3: Daily Profile of Distillate Volume vs Delta T...31 Figure 4-4: MD Temperature Profile vs Time of te Day. 32 Figure 4-5: Feed Water conductivity vs Distillate Flux..33 Figure 4-6: Samples of Grey Water and lear Distillate..33 Figure 5-1: Scematic diagram of PolySun Simulation. 34 Figure 5-2: MD Energy Sink Temperature Profile...35 Figure 5-3: Daily DHW Witdrawl Profile Figure 5-4: old Water Temperature Profile Figure 5-5: MD Temperature and Energy Profile Figure 5-6: DHW Temperature and Energy Profile...38 Figure 5-7: MD Temperature and Energy Profile Figure 5-8: DHW Temperature and Energy Profile...39 Figure 5-9: MD Temperature and Energy Profile...40 Figure 5-10: DHW Temperature and Energy Profile...40 Figure 6-1: Annual Profile of Pure Water Production and MD Termal Energy Demand 42 Figure 6-2: Optimum Flat Plate ollector Area for SDHW-MD System..43 Figure 6-3: Optimum Evacuated Tube ollector Area for SDHW-MD System

8 List of Tables Table 2-1: Pros and ons of MD onfiguration wit Application area.19 Table 4-1: MD operational Parameters for Experimentation 29 Table 5-1: Simulation and Experimental Data: FP Aperture Area 11.85m Table 5-2: Simulation and Experimental Data: FP Aperture Area 7.08m Table 5-3: Simulation and Experimental Data: ET Aperture Area 9.024m Table 6-1: Temperature, Energy Estimation for Annual Pure Water Profile.42 Table 6-2: Annual Energy Demands For MD and Domestic Hot Water. 43 Table 6-3: Summary of Optimum ollector Area Required

9 Nomenclature G Gulf ooperation ouncil SEM entre Suisse d Electronique et de Microtecnique BM Beverage Marketing orporation MD Membrane Distillation SDHW Solar Domestic Hot Water MED Multi effect distillation MSF Multi stage flas RO Reverse Osmosis ED Electro dialysis MV Mecanical vapor compression MED Multi effect umidification DI apacitance Deionization AGMD Air Gap Membrane Distillation SGMD Sweeping Gas Membrane Distillation VMD Vacuum Membrane Distillation PTFE Poly Tetra Floro Etylene -9-

10 1 Introduction 1.1-Introduction Water is te basic need of every uman being for survival. Te water purification and management plays a major role in societies as it covers not only te water tat is needed for uman consumption, but also for oter purposes like agriculture, industry and domestic purposes. Eart as about 325 million cubic and 71% of te eart comprises of water. Out of tis percentage, 97.5% is available as salt water and 2.5% is available as fres water. Only 1% of tis 2.5% of fres water is accessible for drinking purpose as te majority is frozen in ice caps or it exists in te soil as moisture [1]. United Arab Emirates (UAE), one of te affluent counties in MENA region experiencing a rapid increase in its population during recent decades due to rapid industrialization wic in turn, resulting in a uge increase of water demand. In UAE, te long term average precipitation rates is 78mm per year as compared to te average precipitation rates of 715 mm per year in United States in west and 1274 mm per year for Korea in east [2]. According to Dubai Electricity and Water Autority, te water consumption as been increased about 4.58% between 2009 first quarter and 2010 first quarter [2]. So countries like UAE wic experience ig temperature and low rainfall rates triggering unprecedented water demand every year due to teir rapid growt and urbanization. Water demands in United Arab Emirates (UAE) include different sectors like agriculture, forestry, urbanization and energy. According to te Italian Trade ommission (IT) report, te domestic ouseold consumption of water in UAE accounts about 24% wile only 9% is utilized by Industry wereas te major portion of water consumption is being utilized by agricultural sector wic is 67% [2]. UAE is one of te top water scare countries in te world wit a igest per capita domestic water consumption of 550 liters per day per person wic is about two times more as compared to te global national average of 250 liters per day per person [1]. It as been reported tat by 2050, tere will be a serious sortfall of per capita water availability in te region by alf wit serious consequences since te region already aving stressed up aquifers and uncertain natural ydrological system. From te past few decades, desalination of sea water is being adopted as a best strategy to safeguard ground water resources and to meet domestic water demand. According to International Desalination Association (IDA), te total number of desalination plants tat are installed worldwide, over 150 countries are (as of 30 June 2011) wit production capacity of 66.5 million cubic meters per day [5]. Te Gulf ooperation ouncil (G) countries account for almost 41% of total global desalinated water output. urrently UAE possess 70 desalination plants [1]. Altoug, desalinated water is supplied to te end user, its main use would be for bating and cleaning purposes only. People in UAE rely on bottled water for drinking wic is supplied to te end-users typically in 5 gallon containers. Figure 1-1: Te Process of Bottling water in UAE According to te Beverage Marketing orporation (BM), UAE is amongst te top tree countries in te world wic consumes more per capita bottled water. According to BM report, per capita bottled water consumption in UAE in 2010 was 153 liters per person per year wereas it increased to 285 litters wit a year [3,4]. As te demand for drinking water increases rapidly due to consumption of more and more bottled water, undreds of water companies follow simple marketing strategy of demineralization of already desalted water, mineralizing again, packaging and supply of bottled drinkable water to ouseolds or offices. Te bottling process adds up additional energy consumption for treatment, packaging and also -10-

11 lead towards environmental unsustainability due to logistics involved and uge pile up of plastic waste. Various solutions are available to purify/treat te tap water at ome but in te rapidly growing scientific world, it always inevitable to explore a igly sustainable solution for provision of in-ome produced or treated drinking water (See Appendix-1 for some facts regarding bottled water). 1.2-Researc Objective Since UAE consumes a lot of bottled water per capita wic results in unsustainability and ig energy demand, tis tesis focuses more on a sustainable solution for production of pure water in order to replace te bottled water consumption. As a small steps towards sustainability, SEM-uae as initiated a researc project wit main objective of investigating te feasibility of integrating a Membrane distillation (MD) based water purifier wit Solar Domestic Hot Water system (SDHW) for in ouse pure water drinking purpose. Tis solution migt lead to reduction in te bottled water consumption by individuals tus in turn saves energy and reduces te environmental impacts linked to bottled water in terms of supply and plastic waste. Overall objective of researc is to develop a Solar driven combination system for ot and arid regions like UAE. It involves co-generation of pure water and ot water for domestic applications. For te present work, te bencmark for te production of pure drinking water is liters/day and 250 liters/day for ot water in a single family villa comprising of 4 to 5 persons. Apart from feasibility analysis, te researc project sould demonstrate experimentally te concept of solar combi-system along wit development of a semi-commercial prototype of suc a system. Te present work would be a part of te PD work conducted at SEM-uae. Figure 1-2: Solar ombi System for Hot & Dry Regions [22] Specific Objectives: Investigation of te feasibility of integrating a Membrane Distillation based water purifier wit solar domestic ot water for in ouse pure water drinking purpose o Design, Installation and commissioning of SDHW-MD system o Experimental analysis of te integrated system wit different configurations of solar collector arrays and wit different MD operational parameters Determination of total energy demand for simultaneous operation of SDHW-MD system troug termal performance analysis o Simulation of integrated system for annual Pure water, DHW production profiles o Optimum collector area determination troug maximizing eat recovery on MD side -11-

12 1.3-Metodology In order to acieve te desired object, a researc approac as been devised starting wit te literature survey and basic study of membrane distillation tecniques. Te study is ten extended to te detailed analysis of te membrane distillation plant in order to understand ow te eat excange and mass transfer process in te system works. Since te researc study involves te integration of MD system wit solar termal system, a brief literature survey of solar termal systems as been conducted. For te researc purpose for integrating te MD system wit solar domestic ot water system, Air-gap membrane distillation (AGMD) tecnique as been adopted because of its advantages against oter configurations as it as low conduction eat losses, low temperature polarization effect and internal eat recovery. Te only disadvantage for tis tecnique is te low permeate flux because of te mass transfer resistance. AGMD tecnique perfectly suits te present application and moreover it as been te researc focus of SEM-uae and its collaborators. First pase of researc approac is to design te wole system tat involves te proper piping routes, te accessories tat sould be installed in te wole integrated system like pumps, valves, sensors etc and teir proper specification tat fulfills te benc mark production of 15 to 25 liters of pure water per day and 50 liters per day per person of SDHW demand for a single family villa comprising of 4 to 5 persons. A brief analysis as been performed for proper orientation of te solar termal collectors in order to maximize annual solar fraction for overall system performance. So based on all existing installation at SEM-uae and for experimental analysis, tree circuits are designed. Solar Termal Heating ircuit Solar Domestic Hot Water ircuit Membrane Distillation ircuit Te second pase of te approac is te installation a pilot plant at SEM-uae followed by commissioning and experimentation. Following are te steps tat are involved in te experimental analysis of te SDHW-MD pilot plant. Design of experimental field setup integrating te above mentioned circuits Identification and procurement of te plant components Installation and commissioning of procured components Design of experiments, performing experiments and data collection Te tird pase of metodology involves details analysis of te experimental data collected and termal performance evaluation troug computer simulations. Tis involves steps mentioned below Optimum system conditions determination Termal energy balance of te wole system omparison of simulations and experimental results -12-

13 2 Literature Review In tis capter, a brief overview of te literature regarding different desalination tecniques as been discussed. Among various desalination tecniques, te focus of tis researc is limited to te recent advancements in Membrane Distillation tecniques and its integration wit solar termal system. Existing MD tecniques and solar ot water systems as been discussed along wit a detailed explanation on reasons for coosing AGMD and SDHW. 2.1-General Desalination Tecniques In general te desalination tecniques can be classified into different categories but te main focus of tis tesis is segregation of different types of desalination tecniques and te energy consumed by tese tecniques. Some figures are listed below for explanation (see Fig2-1 and 2-2). Figure 2-1: Desalination tecniques based on type of Energy used [7] Figure 2-2: Energy consumption in different types of desalination tecniques -13-

14 Among different water desalination tecniques tat are being used worldwide for seawater desalination, largest installed capacity consist of Multi effect distillation (MED), Multi stage flas (MSF) and reverse osmosis (RO) making up to 86% of total desalination capacity worldwide (see Fig.2-3). Te remaining 14% includes te Electro dialysis (ED), Mecanical vapor compression (MV) and oter processes. Many non commercial emerging processes like solar stills, membrane distillation (MD), Multi effect umidification (MED), Forward osmosis and capacitance deionization (DI) contributes to less tan 1%. As far as te global application is concerned, RO based desalination systems contributes about 53% of te overall capacity of desalination wereas MSF, MED and ED accounts for 25%, 8% and 3% respectively [8]. Te current desalination tecniques tat are installed in G countries normally utilize one of te four processes to desalinate water: RO, MV, MED and MSF. Figure 2-3: Global Desalination apacity [8] In G countries, te majority of desalination systems utilize te evaporation processes like MSF, MED and MV wit a market sare of 87.3%, 12.5% and 0.2% respectively [9]. Recently, solar termal desalination tecniques ave been promising due to use of te renewable energy source. Solar desalination tecniques could use solar energy to produce te distillate directly into te solar collector like solar stills or tey could be indirect combining te conventional desalination tecniques like RO, MSF, MD etc wit te solar termal system. Direct solar desalination requires land area and not muc productive compared to te indirect solar desalination plants wic are more promising and competitive [10] Termal Processes 1. Multi Stage Flas (MSF): Tis termal desalination tecnique is well establised most commonly used tecnique because of its robustness. In tis process te condensation and evaporation of water takes place, were te pressurized water is eated in te brine eater before entering te camber under partial vacuum. Te latent eat of vaporization is recovered for reuse by preeating te incoming water. In order to maximize te water recovery, eac stage of MSF unit operate at lower pressure [11]. Multi stage flas accounts for 90% market sare in termal desalination process and 40% in seawater desalination [12]. In tis process, tere is an increase in te distillate production wit te decrease in te seawater temperature and number of stages. Te increment in te stage results in te increase in te eat transfer area wic tereby improves te efficiency on one and and increase in te cost of te plant on te oter and. Te energy consumption for tis process is ig as compared to te oter commercial desalination tecniques. Tis is igly competitive tecnique because of its reliable performance and long life [12]. At present, a lot of MSF plants are in te pase of installation in G countries like Kuwait, Saudi Arabia & UAE aving te production capacities lying witin te range of 50,000 and 75,000 m 3 /day [13]. -14-

15 Fig 2-4: Multi Stage Flas Process- Adopted [20] 2. Multi Effect Distillation (MED): Tis tecnique operates on reducing te ambient pressure at eac stage wic allows te feed water to undergo multiple boiling witout supplying additional eat after first stage. In tis unit, steam and/or vapors from a eat source is fed in to te series of tubes were it condenses and eats te surface of te tubes and also acts as a eat transfer surface to evaporate te saline water on te oter surface. Now te evaporated saline water is fed in to te next lower pressure stage were it condenses to fres water product [14]. Multi Effect Distillation is well establised tecnology tat dates back to 500 to 600 years [12]. MED normally operates at low temperatures below 70 [12]. Te latest MED plants ave been installed in Barain wit te unit capacity of 273,000 m 3 /day and in UAE aving capacity of 36,000 m 3 /day. [12]. Figure 2-5: Multi Effect Distillation Process- Adopted [21] 3. Vapor ompression Distillation: Tis process is mostly used for medium and small scale desalting units. Unlike in MED were te eat comes from a eat source (boiler or from any renewable), te eat for water evaporation comes from te compression of vapor. Tere are two important metods used to compress te vapor. One is Mecanical Vapor compression (MV) wic is usually electrically driven wic allows te use of electric power to produce water by distillation. Second is Termal Vapor ompression (TV) in wic feed water is evaporated and te vapors tat are produced leaves by passing a moisture separator. Instead of condensing, te feed water is compressed and its condensing temperature is elevated. [11] [14]. According to te -15-

16 researc studies carried on vapor compression distillation processes, most of te units are of small capacity tat ranges from 3,000 m 3 /day [12] Membrane Tecnologies: 1. Figure 2-6 : Mecanical Vapor ompression- Adopted [18] Reverse Osmosis (RO): Tis tecnique is a pressurized filtration tecnique in wic semi permeable membrane is used wic allows te water but not te salts to pass troug it. Tere are different subsystems present in RO system. Te only electrical energy tat is required to operate te system is te energy tat is given to te ig pressure pump wic pump te water at a pressure above te osmotic pressure. Normally te reverse osmosis plant operates at very ig pressure. Since tis is a ig energy osmotic separation process, so te energy required for te osmotic separation relates directly wit te salinity of te solution. So if te concentration of te salt is ig, ten more energy is required to produce te same amount of water from te solution [14] [16]. Reverse osmosis process continues to grow at a very fast rate because of te development of more efficient and less expensive membranes resulting in te decrease in te energy requirement. Tis process as extensively been applied for te desalination of brackis, sea and river waters [12]. Present desalination capacity of RO in te world for desalinating water is over 15 million m 3 /day of product water and tis is growing at a rate of over 10% [12]. Te electrical consumption of RO is about 3.5 KW/m 3 and te termal energy requirement for te termal processes is about kj/kg. So RO as te lower energy consumption wit large prospects of development [15]. Figure 2-7: Principle of Reverse Osmosis- Adopted [19] -16-

17 2. Electrodialysis (ED): Tis is an electrocemical process in wic electric currents are used to move te salt ions selectively troug te membrane. Tis leaves te fres water beind. For desalinating te brackis water, ED is a low cost process. In tis process, multi forces suc as potential and concentration differences lead to transport of solute and water troug ion excange membrane, wic cause te concentration variations of solute in dilute and concentrated compartments [11] [14]. Since all te above mentioned tecnologies are well developed and well establised, but tey are energy intensive and tey are related directly or indirectly to te fossil fuel or non renewable energy resources. Tere are some oter tecnologies wic are under te researc and development pase and tey ave some concrete potential advantages in terms of energy consumption. One of tose tecniques is a Membrane Distillation (MD) tecnique. Tis tecnique is igly efficient as far as energy consumption is concerned. Tis tecnique is simple and as an ability to be integrated wit solar energy Membrane Distillation (MD) Tecnique: Membrane distillation is a termally driven process in wic te driving force is te pressure difference between te ot and cold side. Water is te major component present in te feed solution. In tis process, only te vapors can pass troug te porous ydropobic membrane. Normally te ot side water temperatures under 90 are suitable. Te liquid fed to be treated by MD sould be maintained in direct contact wit one side of te membrane witout penetrating its dry pores [6]. Tere are several advantages and disadvantages for Membrane Distillation process wic are as under. Advantages: [15] Membrane distillation results in 100% (teoretical) rejection of ions, colloids, macromolecules, cells and oter non-volatiles. Less sensitivity to variations towards te process variables like ph, salts etc It produces ig quality distillate. Water distillation takes place at relatively low temperatures as compared to oter conventional processes. No extensive pre treatment of water as compared to pressure based water treatment (like RO). Uses low grade eat (solar, industrial waste eat etc). Membrane distillation tecnique as reduced vapor spaces as compared to te conventional termal distillation processes. Disadvantages: [15] Te termal energy consumption is ig. Altoug energy, i-e eat, is usually low grade. Membrane distillation process is sensitive to surfactants. Flux rate is usually low in tis process tan oter membrane processes for industrial application. In non batc mode, MD usually as low yield and ig circulation rates in batc mode. Since te Membrane Distillation tecnique is a novel process and it is under researc and development pase for many years, te potential for employing Membrane distillation as not been realized yet. Its potential in low grade energy consumption, water quality and simplicity as driven many researcers to carry on te teoretical and lab scale experiments in order to employ tis tecnique on commercial and industrial basis. Tere are several membrane distillation tecniques tat are used for water desalination purposes. Eac of tem as teir own advantages and disadvantages. Some of te membrane distillation tecniques are mentioned below: Direct ontact Membrane Distillation (DMD) Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD) Sweeping Gas Membrane Distillation (SGMD) Vacuum Membrane Distillation (VMD) -17-

18 Direct ontact Membrane Distillation (DMD): DMD is te most widely used and simplest configuration for te membrane distillation process. In tis configuration sown in Fig 2-8, te ot solution (te feed side) is in direct contact wit te ot membrane surface [17]. Tis creates te pressure difference across te membrane to te permeate side due to wic vapors moved across and condenses inside te membrane module. Due to te ydropobic nature of membrane, te feed water cannot penetrate into te membrane. Te only drawback for tis configuration is te eat lost by conduction. Tis tecnique is mostly employed in te food industries for desalination and concentration of aqueous solutions [17] Figure 2-8: Direct ontact Membrane Distillation (DMD) - Adopted [17] Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD): A stagnant air gap is maintained between te membrane and condensing surface as sown in Fig 2-9. Te evaporated volatile molecules cross te membrane pores and te air gap to finally condense over te condensation surface inside te membrane module. Te advantage of tis tecnique is tat unlike DMD, te conduction eat losses are low but on te oter and low distillate flux is one of te disadvantages of AGMD. Figure 2-9: Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD)- Adopted [17] Sweeping Gas Membrane Distillation (SGMD): In SGMD tecnique sown in Fig.2-10, inert gas is normally used to sweep te vapors at te permeate side and ten to condense tese vapors outside te membrane module. Tere is a non-stationary gas barrier in order to reduce te eat loss. Tis enances te mass transfer coefficient. Te disadvantage of tis configuration tat te small volume of permeate diffuses in a large sweep gas volume requiring a large condenser [17] Figure 2-10: Sweeping Gap Membrane Distillation (SGMD)- Adopted [17-18-

19 Vacuum Membrane Distillation (VMD): Te scematic for VMD is sown in Fig In tis MD configuration, a pump is used to create te vacuum on te permeate side and as a result te condensation takes place outside te membrane module. Te conduction eat lost is negligible in tis case wic is a great advantage [17]. Figure 2-11: Vacuum Membrane Distillation (VMD) adopted [17] MD onfiguration DMD AGMD SGMD VMD Advantages Disadvantages Application Area Permeate flux is ig onductive eat losses are ig Desalination Hig temperature polarization effects Water treatment Possibility of internal eat recovery Low conductive eat losses Temperature polarization effect is low Possibility of internal eat recovery Possibility of risk of mass contamination of permeate Permeate flux is low Nuclear Industry Food Industry Textile and emical Industry Parmaceutical Industries Desalination Water treatment Food Industry emical Industry Low conductive eat Sweeping gas andling is losses complicated Desalination Hig flux rate Heat recovery is difficult Water treatment emical Industry Low conductive eat losses Pore wetting risk is very ig Desalination Hig permeate flux Heat recovery is difficult Water treatment Textile and emical Industry Food Industry Table 2-1: Pros and ons of MD onfiguration wit Application area [15] -19-

20 2.2. Solar Termal Heating Systems Solar termal eating systems are very muc common nowadays for fulfilling different domestic and commercial needs. Tey generally uses te free eat coming from te sun to eat te domestic ot water tus replacing te need of any fossil fuel based eat source like boiler. Solar termal eating systems ave many advantages. Te system works all around te year wic means te ot water demand can be fulfilled easily by using solar termal collectors. In winters wen tere is no sufficient solar energy available, external electric or gas boosters are used to meet te ot water requirements. Since tere is no bill tat we ave to pay for te sunligt, so tis energy is free of cost. Moreover solar ot water is green energy water; tis ultimately leads to te carbon dioxide reduction. Tere are different types of solar water eating systems. Some of tem are mentioned below Direct and Indirect Systems:- Direct or Open Loop Systems: Direct systems capture te sun s eat in collector to eat te water present inside te collector tubes and ten transferring tis ot water to fully insulated storage tank. Tese systems are more efficient tan te indirect systems but tey require more maintenance in order to avoid te pipes from te deposition of mineral deposits present inside te water. Indirect or losed Loop Systems: Indirect systems normally use te eat excangers and eat te water indirectly by using te eat transfer fluid wic as a very low freezing point. Tis eat transfer fluid absorbs te radiant eat from te sun. Heat excanger separates te water from te eat transfer fluid tat circulates in te collector. Te eat is transferred to te water in te collector circuit and te eat transfer fluid travels to te eat excanger Active and Passive Systems:- Active Systems: Tese systems uses te circulation accessory like pump to circulate te water and/or eating fluid in te collector circuit. Tese systems are sligtly expensive but offer several advantages. Tey ave superior efficiency and tey can use te drain back systems. In order to reduce te eat loss, storage tank can be placed in conditioned or in semiconditioned space. Passive Systems: Tese systems do not ave any sort of circulation accessory and rely on eatdriven convection to circulate te water. Tey cost less and ave low or no maintenance cost but tey ave lower efficiency tan active systems as overeating and freezing are major concerns in passive systems Solar termal collectors for DHW For te production of domestic ot water, different collectors wit variable temperature ranges can be used depending upon te region, climatic conditions etc. As far as tis researc study is concerned, flat plate collectors and evacuated tube collectors are used for te comparison purpose in order to store te sufficient energy in storage tank and to produce te domestic ot water. Flat plate collectors are mainly used in te regions were te radiation intensity is ig and te residential buildings were te ot water demand as a ig impact on te energy bills. It means tat generally for a large family, te domestic ot water demand is more and for tis reason te flat plate collectors are a good coice for te production of ot water for te a single family. Tese collectors are mainly used for lower temperature ranges. Similarly evacuated tube collectors are mainly used to eat te water for domestic purposes. Tey even work in te overcast days, in cold weater and teir tubes can be installed or replaced easily and individually witout using any special tools. Tese collectors mainly act as giant termos wic allows about 93% of te sun s radiation to come in and only 3 to 5% of radiation to go out. Since tere is a vacuum gap in tese collectors, so te termal conduction and convection losses are negligible wic enable tese systems to work even at low temperatures. Te only disadvantage for tese collectors for te residential eating is teir price. -20-

21 2.3. Wy Membrane Distillation System? Membrane distillation is a very novel process and could be easily adapted for te water purification. For small scale application as te present case, it as more advantages over oter tecniques like RO. Houseold RO systems waste lot of water due to low recover ratio and continuous operation wereas MD is operated in batc mode wit re-circulation of feed water due to its superior quality of andling canges in feed conditions. In tis researc study, Membrane distillation tecnique as been used and more specifically te Air Gap Membrane Distillation tecnique. As mentioned earlier, AGMD as few advantages and in particular well suited for present application. Te partial pressure difference between te ot and cold side serves as a driving force wic allows te molecular water in te form of vapors to pass troug te micro porous ydropobic membrane ensuring te ig quality of te purified water. Moreover te system works below te atmosperic pressure (>1bar) wic is one of anoter reason for using te MD tecnique for researc purpose. Hot side temperature below 90 are suitable operating temperature and tis process is also very beneficial for recovering te eat from cold side. Figure 2-12: Air Gap Membrane Distillation Tecnique [23] Figure 2-13: Sketc of Laboratory Scale MD Module -21-

22 As sown in te above Fig. 2-13, te membrane distillation process is summarized in tree different flow cannels. Hot annel Te ot water enters into te cassette and makes contact wit te membrane. Vapors are generated wic passes troug te ydropobic membrane. Air Gap A stagnant air gap is present between te outer surface of te membrane and condensation plates. Tis allows te vapors to condense and te distillate is collected at te bottom. old annel Te cold fluid flows troug te oter side of te condensation plate wic absorbs te latent eat of vaporization. Te membrane distillation cassette tat is used in te study is sown in te figure below. It as a plate and frame configuration wit te following specifications. Te material of te cassette is Hydropobic PTFE membrane. Pore size is 0.2µm, tickness 280µm Porosity of 80% and Membrane area 0.2m 2 Te AGMD module consists of 2.4 cm gap present between te two aluminum condensing plates. Beind te condensing plates, cooling cannels are located in a serpentine sape wic is covered wit rigid aluminum end plates. Two membranes eac of surface area of 0.1m 2 as been termally welded wit te PTFE frame. Te ot water flows from te bottom of te cassette and comes out from te top after excanging eat wit te cold water tat is entering into te cassette. Since te tecnique is associated wit te air gap, so an air gap of about 5mm is maintained on bot sides of te cassette. Wen te cassette is filled wit water, te membrane bulges out and te gap is filled wit bulge reducing te gap up to 1mm. Some practical pictures of module and te cassette are also sown in Fig and Figure 2-14: Side View of MD assette inside Module Figure 2-15: PTFE Membrane assette -22-

23 2.4. Wy Solar Domestic Hot Water System? In te MENA region, tere is an availability of ig solar insolation (see Fig. 2-16) wic is very suitable to use te solar domestic ot water systems in te region. In te MENA region, te typical SDHW systems tat are installed are designed for te 60-70% annual solar fraction [22] and back up electric eating is used to gain energy for eating rest of te time. It would be obvious to tink tat te back-up eating would be required during winter. But, in fact te percentage of back up eating requirement is more in summer time tat te winters in UAE. Te solar insolation troug te year is good enoug to provide eat for producing water at least wit 90% solar fraction. But te system designers ave mainly two concerns for designing at ig annual solar fractions. Te main issue is Stagnation temperatures during summer time, and terefore system would be idle during peak summers and demand is fulfilled wit backup eaters. Also te eaters are used to kill te legionella bacteria by eating up to 60 wic makes te SDHW systems inefficient, even tere is good possibility of operating at ig efficiencies [22]. Figure 2-16: Solar Insolation in Ras Al Kaima - UAE (W/m 2 ) (Data of SEM-UAE) [24] Terefore te proposed integration of MD wit a SDHW system would be ideal to enance annual solar fraction. Te extra eat in summers could be used for pure water production. Moreover te mandatory regulations by te local autorities also encourages to use te solar domestic ot water systems wic are very efficient from energy conservation point of view as no back up electric eating is required for eating te water. Urban planning council of Abu Dabi (ESTIDAMA) as been working wit manufacturers and distributors to develop standard sizes of solar termal panels for 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 bedroom villas. ESTIDAMA pearl villa rating system (PVRS) encourages local residents as well as solar ot water system suppliers to reduce electrical eating needs. Based on te local conditions and regulations, te concept of Solar ombi system could be realized for UAE region. -23-

24 3 Design, Procurement and Installation of Integrated SDHW-MD System In tis capter, a detailed description of te plant design is provided along wit details of components procured and installed in te plant. Te installation and commissioning of te wole plant as been accomplised in a period of almost 2 monts wic includes te test run of te integrated system in order to fix te leaks, pressure drops in te lines, to remove te air from te system and to run te system smootly for better results. Various steps followed in te installation of te complete plant, commissioning and te standard operation procedures ave been described in detail Design of Experimental Field Setup From te previous laboratory researc on te MD system at KTH and SEM-uae, optimum conditions tat are used to produce te distillated flow ave been determined [U1]. In order to ave a detailed study, a pilot plant facility as been installed in SEM-uae, Ras Al Kaima, UAE. Te detailed design of te pilot plant as been provided by te researcers at SEM-uae. Grapical representation of te system is sown in te Fig Figure 3-1: SDHW-MD Experimental Plant Design at SEM-UAE Site As mentioned in metodology, te wole system as been divided majorly into tree circuits. Te first circuit of te system consists of te solar termal system including te solar collectors, solar station and termal storage tank. Te second part of te pilot plant is te domestic ot water circuit for te production of domestic ot water wic includes te mixing valves, DHW storage tank, cold water supply tank etc. Te tird part of te system is te MD system wic consists of te MD modules, distillate storage and feed water storage system. All te tree circuits ave been inter-connected to ave a combined solar driven MD system along wit various sensors for experimental evaluation. Following sections provide detailed description of te tree circuits. -24-

25 Solar Termal ollectors ircuit wit Termal Storage: Te solar termal circuit consists of te solar collectors tat are divided into tree arrays. Eac panel as an absorber area of 2.55 m 2. Tere are total 8 solar collectors aving te total area of 20.5 m 2. So for te researc purpose, tese 8 collectors are divided in suc a way to ave tree parallel arrays. Te first array as total area of 5.1 m 2. Te second and tird arrays ave te respective areas of 7.65m 2. Different configurations ave been set and te energy form te solar collector as been transferred to te termal storage tank in order to take te ot water from te storage tank to te MD and DHW circuits. Te solar collector circuit as been pressurized and te solar station pump is used to circulate te water in te solar collector circuit and storage tank. Te inflow of te water as been adjusted using te inline flow meters. Te desired flow rate as been adjusted and te water inside te collectors as been eated wit available solar radiation. Te temperature sensors measure te inlet and outlet temperatures at eac collector array and overall pressures, temperatures were measured in te main line of solar circuit. Termal energy from te collectors is transferred to a stratified termal storage tank wit a total volume of 520l. Apart from stratification sperical eat excanger lances, te tank consists of spiral corrugated steel piping troug wic cold water passes for DHW preparation. Also, te ot water (termed as grey water) stored in te tank would act as feed to MD ot side for pure water production Solar Domestic Hot Water ircuit: Te solar domestic ot water system includes te ot water storage tank, a solenoid valve (for te controlled draw off of ot water according to domestic ot water profile), a mixing valve to adjust te temperature in order to get te ot water at desired temperature and also to control te flow rate so tat in a particular time, according to te ot water profile, we can get te desired water at desired temperature. Te domestic ot water circuit is connected to te termal storage tank troug te copper piping insulated wit Poly-isocyanurate insulation in order to minimize te eat losses from te storage tank till te ot water circuit. Te cold water is supplied from cold water storage troug a pump and te ot water from te top layer of te termal storage tank. Te flow rate as been adjusted at 3L/min and te mixing valve is manually controlled in order to mix te ot and cold water to get te water at desired temperature say between So once tis temperature as been maintained, te valve position as been fixed and domestic ot water as been collected in a separate tank at regular intervals wen needed Membrane Distillation ircuit Experimental setup consist of a single cassette MD module wic is connected to te cold water storage tank and ot water storage tank for te inflow of ot and cold water into te cassette. Te feed water is taken from te municipal water supply and ot water, from te termal storage tank, is circulated troug te ot water circulation pump. Different temperature, flow and pressure sensors ave been installed in te incoming and outgoing lines in order to ave a detailed and precise reading for detailed calculations. Moreover, te conductivity of te feed water and distillate water can also be monitored troug te conductivity meters tat are installed in feed and distillate lines. In order to obtain te desired standard bencmarks (250 L/day of DHW and L/day of pure water) for te experimentation, some operational parameters ave been setup. MD system will operate on tese parameters and based on te readings and results obtained, we ave deduced tat ow close we will be to our targets. Te membrane distillation system as been directly integrated to te termal storage system in order to purify te grey water present in te tank. Te pumps transfer te ot water from te storage tank to te MD system at ig temperatures and also tere is a return line in order to conserve te energy and return te water back to te lower temperature zone in te tank. By doing so, te termal energy demand for te MD system as been reduced as we are recovering te eat and sending te water back to te tank at lower temperature. Te detailed specifications of te line sizing and components installed in all tere circuits as been listed in te tables 1, 2 and 3 of Appendix

26 3.2- Identification and Procurement of Plant omponents In order to install te test rig facility in SEM-UAE Ras Al Kaima, te plant is first designed and ten, depending upon te requirement, te equipment as been purcased from different international and local suppliers. Te different equipments like pressure sensors, temperature sensors, conductivity sensors, pumps, RTD s, solar collectors, stratified eat excanger, termal storage tank, cold water tank and copper piping are some of te major components tat are installed in te pilot plant. Te sort description of te sensors and teir specifications are mentioned in te table-4 of Appendix-2. Tese components ave been procured from te different suppliers like TiSun from Austria, WIKA, Grundfos, Burkert etc., and some of te components like Poly-isocyanurate Insulation for copper piping, PV pipes, weiging scale etc., ave been procured locally from different areas of UAE Te major measuring instruments like temperature sensors, RTD s, pressure sensors, pumps, solar station, pressure transmitters etc., are electronically controlled and connected to te computer for accurate measurement and better control of te plant to get precise results. All tese electronic equipment ave been directly connected to te computer and data from eac and every sensor as been measured troug data acquisition system. Data acquisition is done wit te ADAM data acquisition modules. In te plant, we ave two 4019 ADAM Modules wit eigt cannels in wic te pressure, flow and conductivity sensors ave been connected. Te pressure sensors, conductivity sensors and temperature sensors are of 24V power supplies were as te flow sensors are of 5V power supply. All of tese sensors are connected in a specific arrangement wit two 4019 ADAM Modules. Similarly RTD s and remaining temperature sensors are connected in 4015 ADAM Modules (See Appendix 2). Eac 4015 ADAM Module as six cannels or connection. Eac cannel is designated only for a single connection. All te 4019 and 4015 ADAM Modules are finally connected to te output module 4520 tat is responsible for te display of data on te computer and from tis module we got te values of all te parameters tat are required for te calculations. 3.3-Installation and ommissioning of te Pilot Plant Te installation process begins wit te installation of te collector frames. Te frames were adjusted and cut into te suitable lengts according to te details and measurements of te solar collectors. Te frame installation and placing of te solar collectors is sown in te pictures below (Fig. 3-2 (a)). Te collectors ave been placed facing sout and at a tilt angle of 35 o in order to maximize te winter solar yield (Fig. 3.2 (b)). After te installation of te collectors, te copper piping as been laid connecting te different arrangement of te collector arrays to te solar station. Te insulation is very important as it is one of te major components of te installation as far as te eat losses are concerned. Te wole copper piping as been covered by te Poly-isocyanurate insulation of around 50mm tick and wit a density of kg/m 3. Moreover te copper piping involve making of some complicated fittings like elbows, bends etc in order to place some sensors into te fittings. An array of evacuated tubular collectors at SEM-uae SOLAB facility as been joined wit te new installation in order to ave comparative analysis during furter researc (See Fig. 3-2 (c)). Te solar station circuit is ten connected to te stratified solar termal storage tank (See Fig. 3.2 (d)) in order to circulate te water in te collector loop. Te stratified solar termal storage tank is ten connected to te MD system and solar domestic ot water system in order to draw te ot water for te simultaneous production of ot water and pure water. Te solar termal storage tank is connected wit te MD system, solar station and domestic ot water system. PV piping is used to connect te MD system wit termal storage tank and cold water storage of 1000 gallons (See Fig. 3-2 (e)) were as for connecting wit domestic ot water system, copper piping is used wit te same insulation as was used wit te solar collectors. Te complete MD unit along wit te solar station circuit is sown Fig

27 (a) (b) (c) (e) (d) Figure 3-2 Pictures sowing installation of SDHW-MD system at SEM-uae (a) Installation of Flat plate Solar termal collector frames (b) Orientation, placement and angle adjustment of collectors (c) Existing installation of evacuated tube collectors at SEM-uae (d) Stratified solar termal storage tank wit various pipe circuits connected (e) old water storage tank (Municipal water supply) -27-

28 Figure 3-3: Solar Station and MD ircuit Standard Operating Procedure for Plant Start-up Solar Termal ircuit Start-Up:- 1- eck te storage tank temperature for initial reading. Te temperature sould lie between for normal operation (Depend on previous day carging). 2- Ten start te solar loop filling pump and make sure te valves of desired collector array are open. Ten ceck te pressure in te solar circuit. It sould lie between bar. If, by cance, te pressure increases above 3 bar, open te drain valve in te solar station to release te pressure in order to bring te system witin permissible pressure operating range. 3- Fill te storage tank wit municipal tap water and pressurize te storage tank till 0.5 bar. Make sure tat during filling, MD ot in and return line valves are closed in order to avoid excess pressure in MD circuit tat migt lead to membrane damage. 4- Switc ON te solar station pump and set to automatic mode. Membrane Distillation ircuit Start-Up:- 1- First ceck te water level in te main tank. It sould be well above in order to operate te pump. If te level in te tank is not enoug, take filling from recirculation tank and ten proceed. Switc ON te cold side pump. Adjust te desired flow rate on wic we ave to perform te experiments. Put te cold side pump in automatic mode. 2- Open te MD in and return line valves tat were closed during te storage tank filling. Ten switc ON te ot side pump. 3- Set te desired ot side flow rate. It s important to ceck te circuit to be free of air during initial run and drain if necessary to reduce excess pressure to around 0.2 bar. 4- Now start te main DHW pump by adjusting te desired flow rate at 3 l/min. Make sure tat te desired temperatures will be tere form ot and cold side in order to adjust te temperature between using mixing valve. Distillate ollection:- 1- lean te distillation collection tank torougly. 2- Tare and ceck te weigt of te total distillate collected in te tank -28-

29 4 Experimental Analysis of SDHW-MD System After successful installation and commissioning pase of te pilot plant, a detailed experimental analysis as to be performed on te integrated pilot plant in order to study te effect of different parameters on te distillate production. In te present capter, te effect of different parameters like flow rates of ot and cold side of MD, temperature variation and conductivity effects on te distillate production ave been described. Also, a description of te daily distillate profile and MD ot and cold temperature profiles observed due to direct tank integration as been provided. Te experiments ave been conducted continuously for one mont in July 2013 wic is te peak summer season of te region Experimental Approac In order to proceed for te experimental analysis, a brief experimental approac as been developed. Following table provides te operational parameters of MD and teir range. MD OPERATIONAL PARAMENTES RANGE Feed Water oncentration 750 to 1000 ppm Feed Water Flow 4,5,6,7,8 l/min oolant Flow Rate 2.5, 3, 3.5 l/min Hot Water Temperature old Water Temperature Table 4-1: MD Operation parameters for experimental analysis Experiments were done on flat plate collector arrays aving different absorber areas wit different MD ot and cold side flow rates in order to determine te optimum conditions. Te ot side feed flow rates and cold side feed flow rates tat were experimented on te plant were 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 L/min wereas te cold side flow rates were kept at alf of te ot side flow rates. Typical water conductivities of te tap water in UAE range between 800 to 1600 µs/cm. Terefore feed municipal water wit conductivities of around 1200 to 1600 µs/cm as been used for te evaluation. Te temperatures on ot and cold side are not controlled but since te radiation levels are almost same trougout te mont, we would be able to operate at average similar conditions tat allowed us for easy comparison. Overall objective is to analyze and obtain optimum conditions to produce 250 L/day of ot water at 50 and L/day of pure water for single family comprising of 4 to 5 persons (At least 3 liter/person/day). Te same operational parameters were repeated wit evacuated tube collectors aving te absorber area of 9.024m 2. Te experiments were performed and results were compared for bot te collectors in order to evaluate te optimum area tat is required to acieve our bencmarks Results and Discussion In order to draw te experimental results from te integrated pilot plant, several experiments were performed on te system. Out of all, a total of 15 experimental results were tabulated on te prepared experimental seets covering te important parameters tat were required for te calculation. At different feed conductivities, te ot and cold side flow rates were experimented and te optimum conditions were found. Once te optimum flow rates ave been evaluated, te plant was operated on tose flow rates and collector areas were canged. Following sections provide effect of various parameters on distillate flux. -29-

30 Effect of Hot and old Flow rates on Distillate Flow Previously, lab scale experiments were performed at SEM to determine optimum flow conditions for te AGMD module to maximize te flux. However due to lab system limitation, it was unable to go beyond flow rates of 4 l/min on MD ot side. Terefore, several experiments are performed to determine optimum flow conditions for te single cassette module. Te grap below is drawn between te distillate flow rate and te temperature difference between MD ot and cold side. So from te grap, it is obvious tat te optimum flow rate at ot side and cold side of te MD was 6 l/min and 3l/min. Te cold side flow rate as been taken as alf of te ot side flow based on te manufactures recommendation. Few experiments performed at same flow rate on bot sides, but te flux obtained was less in comparison wit recommended flows. Also, increased flow rates provides more flux proving te fact tat AGMD systems sould work at turbulent flow regime in order enance permeate flux. Now tere is a sligt deviation from te observed value at flow rates of 7 l/min on ot side. Experiments will be performed on te plant by furter researcers in te future in order to find out tat weter tat observed deviation will fulfill te conditions or not. But for now, based on te experimental results, te optimum ot side flow rates was 6 l/min and cold side flow rate was 3 l/min. Tese conditions were fixed for furter experimentation. Figure 4-1: Distillate flow rate vs Delta T (Hot in Temperature-old in Temperature) Effect of Hot and old Side Temperature on Flux Various researcers investigated te effect of feed temperatures on te AGMD performance. In general, te rate of evaporation increases wit increase in feed temperature. Terefore for te experiments performed, a grap as been drawn between te distillate flux and te MD ot and cold in temperatures in order to find out te effect of temperature on te distillate flux (See Fig. 4-2). As te ot in temperature increases, te distillate flux increases. Heat loss due to conduction decreases wit increase in feed temperature and ence termal efficiency could be improved. From te experimental data obtained, te termal storage tank as been carged well in order to provide te sufficient temperature to te MD ot side (Between 50 to 70 o ). Average cold in temperatures studied in literature are between 7 to 30 o. But since te region in sunny wit abundant solar radiation, cold side temperatures as been varied between 35 to 40 o. As sown in te grap, to get more flux, te cold in temperature sould be low in order to increase te temperature difference between ot and cold side. Tis suggest te fact tat during summer period, te effect of ig cold in temperatures would be minimized troug ig ot side temperature and ence more delta T. -30-

31 Figure 4-2: MD Hot and old feed temperatures Vs Distillate Flux Daily Distillate Profile and Hot & old feed temperature differences ( T) Anoter important trend to observe is te daily profile of te distillate collected according to ot and cold feed water temperature differences. Experiments performed on tree consecutive days of 22 nd July, 23 rd July and 24 t July and readings of distillate volume were obtained at every 20 minute intervals. Fig. 4-4 sows te plot of volume of distillate collected and temperature difference between te ot and cold side of te MD at different time intervals te for plant run of 10 ours. Figure 4-3: Daily profiles of distillate volume against te Delta T -31-

32 From te grap, it is wort to note tat te trends on all tree days were similar irrespective of decrease in delta T day by day. Te trend again sows te strong dependence of feed temperatures on distillate flux. During early ours of operation (i.e. morning) te temperatures in storage tank are not so ig and ence a dip in distillate production could be observed. Also, for te present application, DHW as been witdrawn during morning ours wic also impacts temperatures in storage tank. Te ig temperature in te beginning of te curve is due to te carging of te storage tank tat as been done one day before in order to start an experiment wit better ot in MD temperature. So as te time passes, te temperatures raise in te tank wic results in te increase in te distillate collection. In te evening, te radiation falls and ultimately te temperature difference decreases resulting in te decrease in te volume of distillate. Te trend denotes tat MD must be operated during sunligt ours in order to maximize yield. Also, it s wort to observe te canges in storage tank troug nigt time operation. But te study is beyond te scope of present work. Te daily distillate profiles indicate strong dependence of temperatures and terefore a plot of all ot and cold side temperatures of MD during a day could be seen in Fig As mentioned previously, DHW witdrawal during morning ours caused temperature dip in te storage tank. As soon as te time passes te radiation starts to increase and te tank carges muc rapidly and temperature levels are maintained sufficiently even toug DHW is witdrawn. Te temperature difference between te ot in and ot return was 5-7 and te point of returning back into storage tank would at te same temperature level of te ot return. Terefore mixing of te layers as been avoided sowing contestant temperature levels in te storage tank. Temperature profiles at different levels of storage tank, collector outlet, MD ot in as been plotted and te plots can be seen in Appendix-3. Similarly, measured temperature difference between te cold in and cold out was Since cold side temperatures are already iger (35 to 38 ö ), te cold out temperature is reacing 45 or greater most of te time. Te cold water in tis case is fed back to cold water storage tank and no recovery steps were taken. Terefore as suggested by many researces on AGMD, it s important to recover te eat from te cold return of MD to improve overall termal efficiency of MD system. In te present co-generation application, warm cold return water could be used in DHW circuit, tus reducing energy demand on DHW side. So by recovering eat from te cold side, we can use tis water as preeated water for producing DHW. Figure 4-4: MD Temperature Profiles vs Time of te day -32-

33 Effect of Feed water onductivity Te application under consideration is to purify municipal tap waters supplied by local autorities in UAE. Terefore aqueous feed conductivities are varied between 1000 to 1800 µs/cm. As far as te conductivity of te feed water is concerned, tere is no significant effect of feed water conductivity on te distillate flux. Irrespective of te increase or decrease in te conductivity, te production of te distillate flux increases due to increase in feed temperature differences.. However at large conductivities (brackis or seawater), flux production would be reduced due to reduction in water vapor pressure for ig concentrated non-volatile solutions. For te experiments conducted at SEM-uae, te effect of feed conductivity on distillate flux is sown in te Fig Figure 4-5: Feed Water conductivity vs Distillate Flux Purification of Grey Water in Termal Store Te grey water from te termal storage as been fed in to te MD unit for purification purpose. Te conductivity of te distillate was obtained at less tan 5µS/cm irrespective of canges in feed concentrations. Samples are collected from te plant to compare feed and distillate is sown in te figure below. Grey Water from Termal Store lear Distillate Figure 4-6: Samples of Grey Water and lear Distillate -33-

34 5 Termal Energy Balance for SDHW-MD System For any co-generation system, it s very important to identify te termal demands of individual processes and ence energy balance as to be determined. Based on te experimental analysis on te integrated SDHW-MD system, energy consumptions as been determined and compared wit simulations on a similar system modeled in PolySun software. Basic assumptions for building te model, simulations on different solar termal collector configuration ave been discussed in tis capter PolySun Simulation Model As sown in Fig. 5-1, a system model as been created in PolySun software in order to replicate te experimental installation. In built system components as been selected for solar termal circuit components and exact experimental set-up specifications were provided like pipe lengts, diameters, insulation tickness, solar station controller settings etc. Solar pump as been controlled similar to experimental unit and switces on wen difference between collector outlet temperature and tank lower level is greater tan 6 o and switces OFF if difference is less tan 4 o. Altoug tere are no in-built components for MD system, it as been approximately replicated wit an energy sink aving specific demand profile trougout te year. Terefore, In addition to solar station controller, two more controllers ave been used in te model one for MD sink and anoter for DHW circuit. Following sections provide details of assumptions made for generation of MD sink, DHW and cold water profiles. Layer 9 DHW ontroller MD Side ontroller MD as Heat Sink Solar Station ontroller MD Energy Sink Profile Figure 5-1: Scematic diagram of PolySun Simulation Model As stated earlier, MD unit is not possible to model in PolySun and ence te eat sink component as been used to calculate te energy consumption of MD. A montly demand profile for te sink as been developed based on te minimum temperature levels tat could be obtained at te layer from wic ot water is fed to MD unit. Annual daily simulation wit minimum aperture area of 7.0 m 2 gives te tank layer 9 temperatures as sown in Fig From tis average montly ot in temperature profile as been drawn wic is sown by green line in te figure. Also, return temperature profile as been developed approximately based on parametric analysis done on lab scale by previous researc at SEM-uae. Tis user defined sink profile as been fed to te simulation model as a simple eat excanging system along wit te flow rates used on MD ot side. It is obvious tat as te radiation increases, te tank will start to carge more resulting in te increase in te top layer temperature. More is te tank top layer temperature; more is te MD ot in temperature and better will be te eat transfer rate. -34-

35 5.1.2 Domestic Hot Water Profile Figure 5-2: MD Energy Sink Temperature Profile In solar water eating system designs, it is always important to calculate te long term (annual and/or montly) averages for water eating loads. It sould be noted tat te amount of energy tat is required to eat te warm water from te cold water to a desired temperature depends upon several factors suc as rate of consumption of te ot water, cold water inlet temperature and te ot water set temperature, location and orientation of te system etc. Moreover te eat losses from te pipes, termal storage tank etc is also included in te eating load calculations. Figure 5-3: Daily DHW Witdrawal Profile Since present application is for single family or a 4 bedroom villa aving occupancy of 5 people (2 people for te first bedroom and ten 1 person for subsequent bedrooms based on ESTIDAMA guidelines), te consumption of te ot water would be 250l/day (single person in UAE consumes 50 liters/day at 50 o temperature) [25]. Te daily ot water consumption profile for a single family as sown in Fig. 5-3 is taken from PolySun in-built standard ourly consumption patterns. onstant daily consumption is assumed for all days in te year witout absence and from te profile tere times peak witdrawal could be observed. As sown in Fig. 5-1, a controller as been used to control mixing valve in order to provide ot water at 50 o during te witdrawal of DHW. -35-

36 old Water Profile Annual temperature profile of cold water is very crucial for calculation of DHW energy demand. According to ESTIDAMA, te montly average tap cold water temperatures in UAE are 14 in winter and 30 in summers [25]. Tese temperatures were fed into PolySun and an annual profile of montly averages was generated automatically as sown by blue line in Fig Wen compared wit daily ambient temperatures te cold water profile approximately matces wit te minimum ambient temperature levels of te corresponding mont. As mentioned earlier, recovery of cold side eat of MD migt decrease overall termal energy demand and ence it s important to generate a profile for cold water return from MD unit. Based on lab experiments, for te cold mains profile UAE, MD cold outlet temperatures would increase by 4 o in winter and 10 o in summer (represented by red line in Fig. 5-4). Figure 5-4: old Water Temperature Profile 5.2. Termal Energy Balance: omparison of Experimental data wit Simulations Based on te above mentioned profiles and wit real experimental data inputs simulations ave been run and compared wit te experimental results obtained on different days in July Te experiments are performed on te flat plate and evacuated tube collectors aving different aperture areas. Basis for comparison is to determine real energy demand of MD in comparison wit energy sink profile used in simulations. Terefore MD ot in and out temperatures are crucial wic depend on several parameters e.g. radiation, outlet collector temperature and storage tank top layer temperature Flat Plate ollectors Aperture area 11.85m 2 : An experiment as been performed on flat plate collector field aving te aperture area of 11.85m 2 (5 collectors) and wit low specific flow rate in solar circuit in order to acieve te iger collector outlet temperatures. Table 6-1, provides energy consumption estimates from simulation and experimental data obtained on 11 t July. From te simulations it s important to note tat 64% of te total solar yield could be used by MD wereas it s only 18.5% for DHW production. Assuming te same solar yield for te experiments, only 41% of total yield as been utilized by MD and 18% for DHW production. More losses ave been observed due to low flow rate and long pipe distances between collector array and termal store. For a practical application, tese losses could be avoided wit proper insulation and by installing termal store near to collectors. Terefore, assuming simulation results as a real case scenario, 23% extra amount of energy could actually be used for MD and ence more production of pure water could be obtained. It as been estimated tat 36% more pure water production could be acieved wit same operational ours of MD. -36-

37 Parameter Value Remarks Specific Flow Rate 11.2 l//m 2 Kept low to acieve ig temperatures Simulation Data Solar Yield 31.3 kw 12 Hours MD Energy Use 20.0 kw 64% of total solar yield DHW Energy Use 5.85 kw 18.5% of total solar yield % of losses 17.5% Long pipe lengts more losses Experimental Data Distillate ollected 16 liters 10 Hours of Operation MD Energy Use kw kw/l DHW Energy Use 5.63 kw Not witdrawn according to DHW profile Estimated Values Extra Available Energy 7.3 kw Total Sim Total Exp Estimated V Dist. 25 liters 36% more production Table 5-1: Simulation and Experimental Data: FP Aperture Area 11.85m 2 As sown in Fig. 5-5, a plot as been developed for ourly energy consumption for MD along wit collector outlet, tank top layer, MD ot in temperatures. We could observe tat collector outlet temperatures from experiments sow 5 o less tan tat of simulation. As stated above, excess energy consumption trend for MD could be observed for simulated data. Main reason for tis attributes to te profile of MD energy sink. Te return temperatures of MD sink were kept constant in simulation and ence more delta T (T otin T otout). Tis could be reasonably taken as accurate value tan experimental data because of low cold side temperature of 30 O compared to te experimental value of 35 o. Figure 5-5: MD Temperature and Energy Profile Also te trends for MD ot in and tank top temperatures sow sligt deviation especially during early ours of operation. Tis drop could be explained due to te fact tat DHW as been witdrawn only during morning instead of following te witdrawal profile as sown in Fig Te sudden drop in te tank top temperature is due to te uncontrolled draw off of te domestic ot water. Te vertical green bars sow te ourly DHW energy profile from simulations in te PolySun pink bars sow te energy profile tat is generated according to te experiments. Te average ot water volume tat was witdrawn during experiment was 273 Liters at an average temperature of about

38 Figure 5-6: DHW Temperature and Energy Profile Aperture area 7. 08m2: Anoter experiment as been performed on flat plate collectors on 24 t July using an array wit lower aperture area (3 collectors). Te specific flow rate as been adjusted sligtly iger in order to bring a balance between outlet temperatures and arvested termal energy. From te values sown in Table 5-2, it s obvious tat solar yield reduced due to less collector area compared to previous experiment. From te simulations, te total solar yield for te plant run was 21.2KW and out of tis te MD system used 53.5% and 27.5% as been used to produce te fixed volume of ot water. Based on similar analysis stated earlier, energy consumption for MD is about 39% of solar field yield and 24.5% for DHW generation. MD was operated for 9.25 ours and te total volume of distillate collected was 8.5 liters wit energy consumption of 0.975kW/liter at MD ot inlet temperatures ranging from o. Parameter Value Remarks Specific Flow Rate 17 l//m 2 Medium flow conditions Simulation Data Solar Yield 21.2 kw 12 Hours MD Energy Use 11.3 kw 53.5% of total yield DHW Energy Use 5.85 kw 27.5% of total yield % of losses 19% Long pipe lengts Experimental Data Distillate ollected 8.5 liters 9.25 Hours of Operation MD Energy Use 8.3 kw kw/l DHW Energy Use 5.2 kw 3 Peak Witdrawal Estimated Values Extra Available Energy 3.7 kw Total Sim Total Exp Estimated V Dis 12.5 liters 32% more production Table 5-2: Simulation and Experimental Data: FP Aperture Area 7.08m 2 In contrary to previous experiment, temperature profiles obtained from experiments sow large deviation from simulation. Around 10 o less temperature was obtained for MD ot inlet and tank top. Increase in flow rate and pipe losses collectively contribute to low temperatures in tank. Terefore it s reasonable to estimate excess energy taking simulation as actual case and ence 32% more distillate production could be obtained. However, te demand of 20l/day as not been fulfilled and suggests te fact tat MD system must need to be operated for more ours. -38-

39 Figure 5-7: MD Temperature and Energy Profile Instead of random witdrawal of DHW as in previous case, DHW as been witdrawn following 3 peaks of demand profile. As sown in Fig. 5-8, experimental data of tank top takes a dip during morning ours and explains te rapid discarge of storage tank due to simultaneous operation of MD and DHW circuits. However, around noon time, temperatures started stabilizing leading to a trend similar to simulation data. It s wort to obtain experimental DHW profile similar to te exact DHW demand profile. Since it requires operation for 20 ours, analysis could be extended furter by researcers at SEM-uae. Figure 5-8: DHW Temperature and Energy Profile Also a careful consideration of te results sows tat tis aperture area for te flat plate collector is not sufficient to fulfill te demand for our desired benc marks. In tis case, its wort to investigate wat would be te optimum collector area needed for fulfilling dual demand for co-generation. Terefore, some brief studies on tis provided in te next capter. -39-

40 Evacuated Tubular collectors SEM-uae SOLAB facilities ave an evacuated tubular collector field and ence a few experiments were performed on collector field aving te aperture area of 9.024m 2 (3 collectors, 16 tube). As per te manufactures recommendation, te specific flow rate as set ig in order to maximize termal energy yield. As sown in Table 5-3, obtained solar yield as been iger tan te yield obtained wit flat plate collectors aving more aperture area (Section 5.2.1) and confirming te fact tat iger flow rates leads to ig termal yield. Also, MD system consumed 71.5% of total yield wereas DHW consumed 16% and te eat losses ave been minimized due to turbulent flow conditions. From te experiments, it was observed tat 44% of te total yield as been utilized for MD and 14.3% for DHW. Again in tis case more tat 40% of energy as been estimated to be lost, since ET installation was muc far tan te FP arrays. Parameter Value Remarks Specific Flow Rate 28 l//m 2 Hig to maximize energy Simulation Data Solar Yield 36.4 kw 12 Hours MD Energy Use 26 kw 71.5% of total yield DHW Energy Use 5.85 kw 16% of total yield % of losses 12.5% Long pipe lengts Experimental Data Distillate ollected 17 liters 9.67 Hours of Operation MD Energy Use 16 kw 0.94 kw/l DHW Energy Use 5.2 kw 3 Peak Witdrawal Estimated Values Extra Available Energy 10.6 kw Total Sim Total Exp Estimated V Dis 28 Liters 40% more production Table 5-3: Simulation and Experimental Data: ET Aperture Area 9.024m 2 Figure 5-9: MD Temperature and Energy Profile Te MD energy and temperature profiles ave been drawn according to te data of obtained on 22 nd July and is sown in Fig. 5-9 above. -40-

41 Interesting results as been observed for temperature profiles of MD ot inlet and tank top during experiments. We could observe tat trend ave been reversed compared to previous two cases. Tis explains rapid carging of storage tank due to ig specific flows and moreover te layer at wic MD ot is taken gets muc eated tan top layers of te tank. Tis trend would be an advantage for MD, since it gets ot water at iger temperatures. Similarly te grapical representation of DHW energy and temperature profiles is sown in te Fig below. As stated in previous cases, te sudden drop in te tank top temperature during morning ours is due to dual demand, low radiation and unstable operation. Te domestic ot water as been drawn in 3 peaks during te plant run i-e, 1 st peak wit draw was between 8 to 10 AM, 2 nd between12 PM to 1 PM and te 3 rd was between 4 PM to 5 PM. Figure 5-10: DHW Temperature and Energy Profile As we can see in Table 5-3, an excess energy obtained troug simulations contributes to 40% more production of distillate. In tis case, te 28l of distillate obtained for 10 ours of operation compared to 16 liters during experiments. In real situations, key is to minimize te losses and operation at reasonably ig flow rates. Te aperture area seems to be ideal to fulfill te overall demand of MD and DHW as well. -41-

42 6 Determination of Optimum ollector Area for SDHW-MD System In te previous capter, termal energy demand as been determined and compared wit simulation data for a particular day. In order to prove te feasibility of te concept, it s very important to determine te annual demand for SDHW-MD system. Since, te solar radiation varies trougout te year; an assumption as been made suc tat te drinking water demand for uman consumption also varies depending upon te season. Based on tis assumption and keeping DHW demand as constant trougout te year annual simulations ave been performed to determine optimum collector area required for simultaneous production of ot water and pure water Annual water production and energy demand profiles Based on lab scale experimental researc at SEM-uae, te termal energy consumption patterns for different ranges of inlet ot and cold temperatures (based on cold water profile reported in previous capter) ave been determined. Table 6-1 provides te amount of termal energy consumed per liter of pure water production at different temperature ranges calculated using te following equation. Q = m. p (T in T out) So for pure water, as its consumption is more in summer, so 15 l/day consumption is estimated in winter days i-e from December to February, 20 l/day from Marc to June and in October and November and 25 l/day in peak summer days i-e from July to September. So te total estimated volume of distillate tat is required for a year is 7300 liters. Assuming tat te temperature ranges mentioned in Table. 6-1 would be available for MD in te periods mentioned above; te annual energy demand tat is required to produce te pure water of 7.3 m 3 will be around 6000 kw. In order to ave annual production profile of pure water and te respective energy consumptions, a plot as been drawn as sown in Fig Parameter Operational Range/Energy/Monts MD Hot In Temperature 50 to 55 o 55 to 60 o 60 to 65 o MD old In Temperature 14 to 16 o 18 to 25 o 28 to 30 o Energy consumed for pure water production 1 kw/l 0.85kW/l 0.7kW/l Period during wic temperatures are available Dec, Jan, Feb Mar-Jun, Oct, Nov Jul, Aug, Sep Table 6-1: Temperature, energy estimations for annual pure water profile 1000 Volume Energy 750 MD Energy Demand (kw) Volume of Distillate (Liter) 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mont Figure 6-1: Annual profile of pure water production and MD termal energy demand 0-42-

43 Similarly te annual demand for domestic ot water as also been calculated according to te ESTIDAMA standards were, in winter, te cold water tap temperature is 14 in winters and 30 in summers wit te fixed volume of 250 L/day at is 2968 KW. But if we recirculate and recover te eat from MD cold side return, ten tis water will act as pre eat water for DHW circuit and net annual energy demand will be reduced to 2223 kw. It means tat after cold water recovery, about 25% of energy will be saved for domestic ot water production and ultimately tere will be reduction in demand for te energy. Following table provides te annual energy demand values based on wic te optimum collector area required to fulfill te total demand would be evaluated. Annual Energy Demand for MD Annual Energy Demand for DHW DHW demand wit MD eat recovery 6000 kw 2968 kw 2223 kw 6.2. Optimum collector area determination Table 6-2: Annual Energy demand for MD and DHW PolySun simulation software as been used to determine te collector area required to fulfill te energy demand of integrated system. Te calculations are based on 100% annual solar fraction wit 10 ours of daily operation of bot MD and solar circuit. MD system would be operated in sunligt ours trougout te year and DHW requirement would be fulfilled troug termal storage. Since, SEM-uae SOLAB as installation of bot FP and ET systems, FMS-2.55 model from Tisun is cosen for flat plate collectors, and Siedo 1-16 model from Sunda Solar is cosen for evacuated tube collectors. For flat plate collectors, Fig. 6-2 sows te trends of te collector efficiency and aperture area against te annual energy demand. Te graps ave been drawn for bot cold side eat recovery and witout eat recovery. So after a careful consideration from te grap, it as been found tat for flat plate collector, an aperture area of 8 to 9m 2 is sufficient to meet overall demand. Te igligted area sows te optimum aperture area for te desired energy demand of bot MD and DHW. Figure 6-2: Optimum Flat Plate ollector Area for SDHW-MD system -43-

44 Similarly for Evacuated tube collector field, te collector area of 7 to 8m 2 is sufficient to meet overall energy demand for MD and SDHW (see Fig. 6-3). Figure 6-3: Optimum Evacuated Tube ollector Area for SDHW-MD system In MENA regions, normally te collector filed of 5m 2 is used to produce te ot water for meeting te domestic purposes. So by tis study, te addition of only 3-4m 2 will be sufficient to meet te pure water demand as well. So a minimum of 3m 2 aperture area must be added to regular solar domestic ot water system so tat te need of pure water demand (15-25 L/day) can also be fulfilled for a single family villa. Following table summarizes te average area required for SDHW-MD system for a system installed on top of a villa in UAE region. ollector Type Aperture Area (m 2 ) Solar Yield (kw/annum) MD Energy Use (kw/annum) DHW Energy Use (kw/annum) Table 6-3: Summary of optimum collector area required Total Losses (kw/annum) FP 8.5 m (60%) 2100 (21.5 %) 1800 (18.5%) ET 7.5 m (58.5%) 2100 (22%) 1900 (19.5%) -44-

45 7- onclusions and Recommendations for Future Work oncluding te wole study and experimental analysis performed on te integrated system installed in SEM-uae, tere are some conclusions and recommendations tat are drawn in te ligt of experiments and teir results so tat tese recommendations and conclusion migt be elpful for te future researcers in order to improve and refine te study. Some of te conclusions and possible recommendations are listed below. Based on experiments, it is feasible to integrate MD wit SDHW system, for sustainable production of l/day/person of pure water along wit DHW (orresponding to te pure water usage pattern, te production of distillate will be less in winter (December to January) and more in peak summer (July to September). Based on te consumer coice, te water could be taken directly or after simple post-treatment steps. Te optimum conditions for producing te desired distillate from AGMD unit are Optimum flow rates of 6 l/min on ot side and 3 l/min on cold side. Hot side temperature sould be and cold side temperature sould be For te conductivity ranges performed in te experiments, te feed conductivity does not ave significant effect on te production rate of te distillate and te conductivity of te distillate was always less tan 5µS/cm. However for te brackis water (15,000µS/cm) purification pretaining to waters in Asia, its effect could be investigated furter. SDHW-MD intergrated system leads to efficient utilization of te standard SDHW system in summer time, troug reduced backup eating and pure water production. Also, MD cold side could be recovered for reducing DHW energy demand of around 25% and tus maximizes energy input to MD leading to increased distillate flux. Te total annual energy demand for te simultaneous production of ot water and drinking water is 8220 KW (6000 KW for pure water and 2223 KW). So 73% energy demand for pure water only if ot water is recovered from MD cold side. Te optimum aperture areas for flat plate collector field and evacuated tube collector field for meeting te annual energy demand for simultaneous production of ot water and pure water as been identified as 8.5 m 2 and 7.5 m 2 respectively. Recommendations for Future Work Based on te experimental analysis and annual simulations, few practical points ave to be torougly examined for real scale application of integrated system. Leakage of MD cassettes above pressures of 0.2 bar on ot-side Robust and well-sealed cassette is needed for long term operation Direct integration wit termal store would not be a feasible option Regular refilling of te tank is required Unable to maintain pressures suitable for direct MD integration Limitation on using oter type of termal storage tanks Reduction of energy consuption by MD wit increase in recovery rate Enancing condensation performance wit new eat transfer surfaces Seperate termal store needed for MD for practical implementation Single cassette module would not be able to fulfill annual demand for pure water if operated only in solar ours, terefore two cassette module would be ideal for operation -45-

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