Energy demand for hot water supply for indoor environments: Problems and perspectives

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1 Editorial Energy demand for hot water supply for indoor environments: Problems and perspectives Indoor and Built Environment Indoor and Built Environment 2015, Vol. 24(1) 5 10! The Author(s) 2015 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/ journalspermissions.nav DOI: / X ibe.sagepub.com Xianting Li 1, Wei Wu 1 and Chuck W. F. Yu 2 Supply of hot water, including space heating and domestic hot water (DHW), is very important for the creation of indoor environment. Hot water is not only the most important source for space heating in winter, but also widely used for bathing, washing, swimming and so on. It is not exaggerated to say that human being cannot live without hot water. The building energy consumption contributes 30 40% to the total energy consumption in developed countries, and about 15 25% in developing countries. 1 The energy consumption breakdown by end uses in developed countries is summarized in Table 1. 1,2 In residential sector, space heating uses 20 50% and DHW, 10 20% of the total building energy consumption. In commercial sector, space heating accounts for 15 50% and DHW, 5 10% of the total building energy consumption. The energy consumption ratio related to hot water can reach 40 60% for residential buildings and 20 60% for commercial buildings in developed countries. As for developing countries, using China as a representative, the energy consumption for heating and DHW is shown in Figure 1. 2 The energy consumption related to hot water supply in China can be categorized as: heating in northern urban areas, heating in central urban areas and DHW in urban areas. The energy consumption for heating in northern urban areas was doubled from 72 million ton of standard coal equivalent (Mtce) in 1996 to 153 Mtce in 2008, accounting for 23% of the total building energy consumption. Besides, heating in central urban areas contributes more than 2% and DHW in urban areas contributes slightly less than 2% of the total building energy consumption. As a result, the energy consumption related to hot water supply is currently about 27% of total building energy consumption in China. The energy consumption related to hot water in developing countries is much lower than developed countries because of lower urbanization ratio and lower living standard. For example, the energy consumption for heating is not high at present in central urban areas along China s Yangtze River, but hot water heating is required as the near 5 C outdoor temperature and high-humidity air make it very cold in winter and space heating is not widely used. The energy consumption for heating will inevitably increase greatly in these areas, as living standard has been rapidly improved for all families; about 4 10 times higher energy demand is predicted assuming conventional district heating is adopted. 2 Surveys 2 showed that the average daily DHW consumption per family in China is only 20% of that in developed countries. The urbanization ratio of China is being predicted to reach 70% in the future, and this will certainly further increase the energy consumption of hot water supply, as in other developing countries. Apart from the huge heating loads for space heating and DHW, the system type and efficiency for hot water producing is another important factor causing the huge energy consumption. The percentage distribution in terms of energy use for different space heating systems for commercial buildings in the USA 3 and for residential buildings in Sweden 4 are illustrated in Figure 2. Most of the space heating systems in these developed countries are based on direct use of fossil fuel and electricity in the commercial and residential buildings. Similarly for DHW, most residential water heaters are also based on fossil fuels or electric heating, with nearly 40% homes in the USA 5 using electric heater, due to their easy installation and operation. Table 2 shows the main hot-water-producing systems used in China, which is taken as a representative of developing countries. 1,2 In northern urban areas of China, coal-fired boiler and combined heat and power (CHP) are most widely used, and about 98% of 1 Department of Building Science, School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China 2 International Society of the Built Environment (ISBE), The Nortons, Caldecotte, Milton Keynes, UK Corresponding author: Xianting Li, Department of Building Science, School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, Beijing , China. xtingli@tsinghua.edu.cn

2 6 Indoor and Built Environment 24(1) Table 1. Energy consumption breakdown by end uses in developed countries. 1,2 Countries Space cooling Space heating DHW Cooking Appliance Lighting Residential buildings 2 Japan 3% 18% 20% 7% 52% USA 15% 28% 13% 4% 30% 10% Italy 52% 9% 5% 34% Commercial buildings 1 Japan 8% 17% 10% 5% 29% 31% USA 13% 14% 7% 2% 38% 26% Korea 20% 21% 4% 5% 18% 32% Canada 8% 51% 9% 23% 9% DHW: domestic hot water. Figure 1. Energy consumption of heating and DHW in China. 2 Single-package and split-system heat pumps District heating 7% Furnaces (oil/gas/electric) 20% Packaged units (gas/electric) 25% Boilers (oil/gas) 21% Unit heaters (oil/gas/electric) 18% Individual space heaters (electric/gas/wood) 2% Packaged-terminal and water-loop heat pumps 2% Figure 2. Percentage of different space heating systems in developed countries. (a) Percentage distribution for commercial buildings in the USA. 3 (b) Percentage distribution for detached homes in Sweden. 4

3 Li et al. 7 Table 2. Main hot-water-producing systems in China. 1,2 Heating in northern urban areas Heating in central urban areas DHW in urban areas Coal boiler 47% Air-conditioner 6 32% Gas heater 12 41% CHP 39% Electrical heating 7 28% Electrical heater 47 70% Household coal furnace 7% Air-conditioner + Electrical heating 19 31% Solar heater 2 20% Gas boiler 4% District heating 0 3% District DHW 0 4% Household gas furnace 1% Others 9 45% Coal-based 0 7% Electrical heating 1% Others 0 14% Air-conditioner 1% DHW: domestic hot water. hot-water-producing systems are based on fossil fuel, due to the coal-dominated energy structure. For heating in central urban China, the majority uses electrical heating and air-conditioning; while for DHW in urban areas, electrical heater and gas heater are most widely used. The hot-water-producing systems based on fuel burning are of low energy efficiency. The average heat efficiency of coal fired boiler is usually less than 70%, while that of gas fired boiler is about 90%. Besides, the fuel burning heating systems will emit a substantial amount of pollutants to ambient atmosphere, such as CO 2,SO 2,NO X and particulate matters. The CO 2 emission caused by urban district heating in China is shown in Figure 3, with the emission accounting for 4.4% of China s total CO 2 emission in Although the electric hot water systems are more favourable due to possible centralized pollution treatment in the power plant to reduce emissions, the primary energy efficiency of electric heater is as low as 33%, which is unacceptable for energy saving. If we focus on the energy grade for heating and DHW, almost all the current widely applied hotwater-producing systems are using high-grade energies (fossil fuel and electricity) to meet the low-grade heating demands. Indoor air temperature is commonly controlled by space heating systems at about C. Theoretically, hot water temperature at about 30 C can guarantee this indoor requirement. As listed in Table 3, most of the required hot water temperatures for indoor environments are in the range of C. 7,8 The lower the supplied hot water temperature, the less energy consumption for meeting the same heating load, as illustrated in Figure 4(a). However, hot water with much higher temperatures is usually produced primarily, and then exchanges heat through an intermediate heat exchanger or mixes with cold waters to obtain hot water with lower temperatures. A typical process is the district heating system, where 130 C hot water in the primary network is produced by the boiler and then heats the return water to 60 C in the secondary network for space heating. 8 Figure 3. CO 2 emission caused by urban district heating in China 4.4%. 6 Table 3. Typical temperatures for different hot water applications. 7,8 Applications High temperature heating Medium temperature heating Low temperature heating Very low temperature heating DHW DHW: domestic hot water. Temperatures Supply: 90 C, Return: 70 C Supply: 55 C, Return: C Supply: 45 C, Return: C Supply: 35 C, Return: 25 C Supply: C Though the energy amount is nearly the same, the energy grade has been wasted. To make the best use of the energy grade, a set of reasonable energy utilization principles is proposed, as illustrated in Figure 4(b). The high-grade energies such as fossil fuel, electricity, high-pressure steam, high-temperature hot water should be driving sources rather than for direct use. Low-grade hot media should be produced to meet the low-temperature demand of

4 8 Indoor and Built Environment 24(1) Figure 4. Indoor requirement and energy utilization principles. (a) Indoor requirement and energy consumption. (b) Reasonable energy utilization principles. Table 4. Suggested hot-water-producing technologies. Energies Technologies Comments and perspectives Fuel Absorption heat pump Use boiler/network/gas/oil to drive absorption heat pump Extract additional heat from ambient air/soil/ground water to produce low temperature hot water Electricity Renewable energy Gas heat pump Use gas to drive the motor and activate the vapour-compression heat pump. 15,16 Extract additional heat from ambient air and exhaust flue. Flue heat recovery Recovery of the total heat in exhaust gas flue. 17,18 Better efficiency by combining with absorption heat pump and gas engine heat pump. Air/water/ground source heat pump Solar energy Geothermal energy Biomass energy Use electricity to drive the vapour compression heat pump to extract additional heat from ambient air/soil/ground water. Low-temperature operation of air source is important in cold regions, 19 radiant floor is favourable for space heating. Soil thermal imbalance of ground source should be solved to obtain long-term high efficiency. 20 Air source can be combined with water source and energy storage to reduce the investment. 21 Air source can be combined with ground source to reduce the thermal imbalance in cold regions. 22 Direct use of solar energy is common now, but the high investment is a problem. The solar air source heat pump can combine the advantages of heat pump and solar collector, reducing the investment and improving the efficiency. 23 Solar energy storage integrated with ground source heat pump can reduce the thermal imbalance in cold regions. 24 Geothermal energy is usually directly used and then recharged into the ground. The tail water temperature is above 35 C, which can be recovered by a heat pump before recharged into the ground, so as to increase the heating capacity per geothermal well. 25 High temperature geothermal energy can be used to drive absorption heat pump or power system rather than direct using. Biomass is widely used now, it has a good potential to enhance energy efficiency by combining with absorption heat pump. 26

5 Li et al. 9 space heating and DHW. Natural energy sources such as ambient air, soil, ground water and renewable energies should be more fully used. These principles can reduce the waste of high energy grade, to realize lowgrade energy utilization and thus enhance the efficiency of hot-water-producing systems. Based on the proposed energy utilization principles, some suggested hot-water-producing technologies in the category of fuel, electricity and renewable energy are provided in Table 4. Among the renewable energy-based hot-water-producing technologies, solar energy is more widely used due to its wide distribution. The main problems of solar energy are the high investment and large installation space required, and the auxiliary energy source is always needed to ensure reliability. So the solar energy has been suggested as a supplement to other systems. Solar energy integrated with air source heat pump can reduce the solar collector area, improve the heat pump efficiency in lower ambient temperatures and make use of weak solar radiation. Solar energy integrated with ground source heat pump can reduce the solar collector area, keep the soil thermal balance in cold regions and enhance long-term efficiency and reliability. As for geothermal and biomass energy, they can be operated without any auxiliary energy source, but the applications are limited to regions that are rich with these renewable energies. The combination with heat pump technologies can make better use of their energy grade to provide a higher heating capacity. The primary energy efficiency and economic feasibility of fuel-based and electricity-based hot-water-producing technologies should be analyzed to evaluate their applicability for a specific application. The primary energy efficiency of different hot water systems, including the conventional electric heater, coal fired boiler and gas fired boiler, together with the suggested air source electric heat pump (ASEHP), gas-fired air source absorption heat pump (ASAHP), steam-driven ASAHP and hot-water-driven ASAHP under various ambient temperatures are compared in Figure 5. The primary energy efficiency of the conventional hot water systems can be greatly improved by using the suggested hot water systems, particularly under higher ambient temperatures. Anyway, all these hot-water-producing systems can be potential alternatives for energy saving for space heating and DHW supply anywhere in the world. Whenever we use the suggested systems or to design new systems, the reasonable energy utilization principle should be a good guidance. However, we should keep in mind that one single technology can never fit all applications in different climate zone, building type, energy resources, economy level, etc. We should choose the suitable systems according to actual Figure 5. Primary energy efficiency of different hot-waterproducing systems. conditions in terms of energy efficiency and economic feasibility. Authors contribution All authors contribute equally in the preparation of this manuscript. References 1. Tsinghua University Building Energy Saving Research Center Annual Report on China Building Energy Efficiency. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press, 2010 (in Chinese). 2. Tsinghua University Building Energy Saving Research Center Annual Report on China Building Energy Efficiency. Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press, 2013 (in Chinese). 3. Westphalen D, Koszalinski S. Energy Consumption Characteristics of Commercial Building HVAC Systems Volume I: Chillers, Refrigerant Compressors, and Heating Systems. Final Report to the Department of Energy, April National Technical Information Service (NTIS), U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA Mahapatra K and Leif G. An adopter-centric approach to analyze the diffusion patterns of innovative residential heating systems in Sweden. Energy Policy 2008; 36(2): Hepbasli A and Yildiz K. A review of heat pump water heating systems. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009; 13(6): Wang L, Chen X, Wang L, Sun SF, Tong LG, Yue XF, Yin SW and Zheng LF. Contribution from urban heating to China s 2020 goal of emission reduction. Environ Sci Technol 2011; 45(11): Myhren JA and Holmberg S. Flow patterns and thermal comfort in a room with panel, floor and wall heating. Energy Build 2008; 40(4): Li XT, Wu W, Zhang XL, Shi WX and Wang BL. Energy saving potential of low temperature hot water system based on air source absorption heat pump. Appl Thermal Eng 2012; 48: Wu W, Zhang XL, Li XT, Shi WX and Wang BL. Comparisons of different working pairs and cycles on the performance of absorption heat pump for heating and domestic hot water in cold regions. Appl Thermal Eng 2012; 48:

6 10 Indoor and Built Environment 24(1) 10. Wu W, Shi WX, Wang BL and Li XT. A new heating system based on coupled air source absorption heat pump for cold regions: Energy saving analysis. Energy Convers Manage 2013; 76: Wu W, Wang BL, Shi WX and Li XT. Techno-economic analysis of air source absorption heat pump: improving economy from a design perspective. Energy Build 2014; 81: Wu W, You T, Wang BL, Shi WX and Li XT. Simulation of a combined heating, cooling and domestic hot water system based on ground source absorption heat pump. Appl Energy 2014; 126: Wu W, You T, Wang BL, Shi WX and Li XT. Evaluation of ground source absorption heat pumps combined with borehole free cooling. Energy Conversion Manage 2014; 79: Wu W, Wang BL, You T, Shi WX and Li XT. A potential solution for thermal imbalance of ground source heat pump systems in cold regions: ground source absorption heat pump. Renew Energy 2013; 59: Hepbasli A, Erbay Z, Icier F, Colak N and Hancioglu E. A review of gas engine driven heat pumps (GEHPs) for residential and industrial applications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009; 13(1): Elgendy E, Schmidt J, Khalil A and Fatouh M. Performance of a gas engine driven heat pump for hot water supply systems. Energy 2011; 36(5): Zhu K, Xia JJ, Xie XY and Jiang Y. Total heat recovery of gas boiler by absorption heat pump and direct-contact heat exchanger. Appl Thermal Eng 2014; 71(1): Qu M, Omar A and Yin HX. New configurations of a heat recovery absorption heat pump integrated with a natural gas boiler for boiler efficiency improvement. Energy Conversion Manage 2014; 87: Wang W, Ma Z, Jiang Y, Yang Y, Xu S and Yang Z. Field test investigation of a double-stage coupled heat pumps heating system for cold regions. Int J Refrigeration 2005; 28(5): You T, Wu W, Wang BL, Shi WX and Li XT. Dynamic Soil Temperature of Ground-Coupled Heat Pump System in Cold Region. In: Proceedings of the 8th international symposium on heating, ventilation and air conditioning, October 2013, Xi an; Volume 262, 2014, pp Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 21. Han ZW, Li XT, Shi WX and Shi YZ. Simulation research on low temperature air source heat pump system combined with thermal storage of solar energy. Acta Energiae Solaris Sinica 2012; 33(8): (in Chinese). 22. You T, Wang BL, Wu W, Shi WX and Li XT. A new solution for underground thermal imbalance of ground-coupled heat pump systems in cold regions: heat compensation unit with thermosyphon. Appl Thermal Eng 2014; 64(1): Ozgener O and Arif H. A review on the energy and exergy analysis of solar assisted heat pump systems. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2007; 11(3): Rad FM, Fung AS and Leong WH. Feasibility of combined solar thermal and ground source heat pump systems in cold climate, Canada. Energy Building 2013; 61: Li TL, Zhu JL, Xin SL and Zhang W. A novel geothermal system combined power generation, gathering heat tracing, heating/ domestic hot water and oil recovery in an oilfield. Geothermics 2014; 51: Wu W, Wang BL, Shi WX and Li XT. Absorption heating technologies: a review and perspective. Appl Energy 2014; 130:

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