A STUDY OF CROSS CONTAMINATION OF IN-SUITE VENTILATION SYSTEMS USED IN MULTI-UNIT RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
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1 A STUDY OF CROSS CONTAMINATION OF IN-SUITE VENTILATION SYSTEMS USED IN MULTI-UNIT RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS C.A. Parker, K.D. Pressnail, M.F. Touchie, D. DeRose, and S. Dedesko ABSTRACT Complaints of cross contamination of in-suite ventilation systems in multi-unit residential buildings (MURBs) have grown as the use of suite-based ventilation systems have become more prevalent. To investigate the causes of cross contamination in MURBs, a representative full-scale model of two verticallyoriented suite zones separated by a floor was constructed and tested in a laboratory. A recently occupied MURB where odour transmission problems had occurred was used to determine the spatial configuration and separation of the ventilation inlet and outlet vents. Using CO2 as a tracer gas, these full-scale laboratory tests revealed that under relatively still air conditions found in the laboratory, cross contamination was unlikely to occur at low ventilation flow rates. Despite this null finding, the results of the full-scale laboratory testing were still useful. The laboratory tests were used to calibrate a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model that could simulate the behaviour of the laboratory apparatus. Parameters which could be adjusted more easily in a computer model including wind speed and direction, intake and exhaust vent separation distances, and vent angle were studied using the CFD model. Based on the calibrated CFD modeling results, some design suggestions for vent angle, and separation distances for ventilation inlets and outlets have been proposed for in-suite ventilation systems. INTRODUCTION A significant portion of the Canadian population resides in high-rise, multi-unit residential buildings (MURBs) (Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, 2003). In 2001, approximately 31 % of Canadians lived in apartment buildings (Liu, 2007). Generally, MURBs are not very energy efficient (Touchie et al., 2013). Recently, however, the energy performance standards for newly constructed MURBs have been advanced. This has led to improvements in durability and comfort as well. To achieve better energy performance, better building envelope air-tightness is required. This has necessitated an evolution from central ventilation systems, to balanced, suite-based ventilation systems (Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, 2003). However, the design and construction of suite-based ventilation systems have not always been executed well. Surveys of occupants of one recently constructed MURB revealed complaints of unwanted odours. Occupants noted that tobacco and cooking odours, originating from other suites, were entering their units. The intensity of the odours was found to be greatest at the exterior wall as opposed to the corridor wall. This finding supports the hypothesis that contaminated air was likely entering the suites through the HRV inlet of the ventilation system as opposed to entering from the corridor (Dave DeRose, personal communication, August 2011). More than just a nuisance, in extreme cases, such cross contamination can potentially pose a risk to human health depending upon the contaminant type. This leads to the question: if cross contamination is to be avoided, which vent design characteristics such as vent angle, vent cap type and separation distance are needed? Gord Cooke of Air Solutions (Cooke, 2008) wrote a white paper analyzing the codes and guidelines that exist today with respect to the separation distance between ventilator intake and exhaust vents. Relying on his 25 years of experience, he noted the industry standard practice was to separate intake and exhaust vents by at least 1.8 m. 369
2 ASHRAE 62.1 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality governs high-rise buildings. The standard generally identifies high-rise residential exhaust air as Class 1, and specifically identifies exhaust from kitchen range hoods and private toilets as Class 2. In the 2010 version of the standard, only Class 3 and 4 exhaust air included a required separation distance from fresh air supply vents (ASHRAE, 2010). However, the 2013 version of the standard now requires a separation distance of at least 3 m (10 ) between Class 2 exhaust air and fresh air supply vents and does not require any separation distance for Class 1 (ASHRAE, 2013). In the case of low-rise residential buildings, Section 6.8 of ASHRAE Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Low-Rise Residential Buildings requires the fresh air supply and exhaust terminations to be separated by at least 3.0 m (10 ). A particularly helpful standard is the CAN/CSA standard F326 M91. Section 5.6 of this standard requires that: leakage from the exhaust air stream to any supply air stream shall not constitute more than 15% of the exhaust airflow provided by the packaged ventilator. To the authors knowledge, the OBC and NBCC do not define a similar maximum level of contamination. To investigate the possibility of cross contamination occurring by suite-based ventilation systems, a mockup of two vertically-oriented condominium suites was constructed and tested in a laboratory. The results of the laboratory testing are presented here along with the results of calibrated computer modeling. Based on the results of the laboratory and computer modeling, design suggestions for reducing the likelihood of cross contamination are presented (Parker, 2012). 370
3 LABORATORY MOCK-UP A two-storey mock-up of two vertically-oriented condominium suites was built in the structural laboratory in the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Toronto, as shown in Photo 1. PHOTO 1: TWO-STOREY CONDOMINIUM MOCK-UP IN THE STRUCTURAL LABORATORY Each suite was approximately 3.6 m wide, 2.6 m high, and 1.2 m in depth. This latter dimension was sized to allow enough room for the ventilation and the monitoring equipment. As well, the interior volume of each suite had to be large enough to provide a sufficient reservoir for the CO2 which was used as a tracer gas. Each suite was equipped with a separate energy recovery ventilator (ERV). The exhaust vent of the ERV from the upper suite was located approximately 3.7 m above the ground, and positioned 2.5 m directly above the ERV inlet vent of the lower suite. This distance was the same as the distance between the ERV inlets and exhausts of the subject building which had experienced the odour transmission complaints. The ERVs, Venmar Constructo Model 1.0 Air Exchangers, were provided by Air Solutions and had a lowspeed capacity of 21.1 L/s and a high speed capacity of 49.6 L/s. Most of the experimental testing was performed at low ventilation air speeds. Low speeds were used in order to lengthen the steady state test times for a given supply of CO2. To determine whether cross contamination was occurring, CO2 was introduced into the upper suite and maintained at a constant concentration of 2000 ppm when the suite ventilation system was operated. This concentration was selected because 2000 ppm is higher than the concentration that would normally be observed in an apartment environment under average circumstances (Fehlmann and Wanner 1993). Carbon dioxide levels were maintained by means of a tank regulator and a controller. CO2 sensors, manufactured by COZIR, were used to detect the CO2 concentrations. These sensors had a reported accuracy of the greater of +/- 50 ppm and +/- 3 % of the reading. The sampling rate for all sensors was once every 30 seconds. The sensors were located at the exhaust and inlet vent openings. The testing was carried out in a large volume indoor space in an attempt to create relatively calm, steady state atmospheric conditions. To minimize the varying effects of the laboratory ventilation system, the testing was performed after regular business hours when the exterior loading bay doors were closed and the ventilation system was turned off. 371
4 LABORATORY TEST RESULTS In a preliminary test, the exhaust vent from the upper suite was positioned 2.5 m directly above the lower suite inlet vent. The lower suite ERV was operated and a CO2 sensor recorded the lower suite CO2 concentration, while CO2 at 2000 ppm was exhausted from the upper suite. The upper suite exhaust velocity was approximately 1.3 m/s corresponding to a flow rate of 21.1 L/s. A vent cap, with louvers positioned at 42 from the vertical, as shown in Photo 2, directed the exhaust air flow downward. The lower suite inlet had no vent cap and therefore drew air directly into the lower suite at an angle that was 90 to the wall face. Ambient CO2 concentrations in the laboratory were compared with measurements taken at the inlet of the lower suite which was drawing fresh air through the ERV from the lab. The preliminary lower suite readings showed that the CO2 concentrations remained at the ambient concentrations found in the lab. Thus, no cross contamination was observed during this test. PHOTO 2: VENT CAP USED FOR THE ERV EXHAUST IN THE UPPER SUITE Next, a secondary test was carried out in order to assess why no cross contamination was observed during the preliminary test. As before, air was exhausted from a vent cap (with louvers positioned at 42 from the vertical) and discharged at an approximate flow rate of 21.1 L/s. To locate the position and shape of the exhaust plume, theatrical smoke was used. Using information from the theatrical smoke test, CO2 sensors were next placed in multiple locations within the exhaust path. The sensors were located in a vertical plane that was perpendicular to the mock-up exterior wall and aligned with the exhaust vent. The locations of the CO2 readings are shown in Figure 1 together with the measured concentrations represented by the size of the circles. The circle areas are scaled to represent the percentage of the introduced CO2 that remains. 372
5 FIGURE 1: LABORATORY CO2 PLUME CONCENTRATION VARIATION WITH DISTANCE FROM THE EXHAUST STREAM SOURCE The percentage of the CO2 remaining shown in Figure 1 has been calculated using Equation 1: Equation 1 The sampled points, shown in Figure 1, all lie in the vertical plane described above. This plane is where the highest concentrations of CO2 were most likely to be observed when there was minimal air movement in the laboratory. It is interesting to note that, at the lower ERV inlet level, which is 2.5 m below the outlet of the ERV in the suite above, the % of CO2 that remains is less than 8 %. This occurs approximately 1.7 m from the face of the wall. This means that air drawn in at this elevation would likely contain less than 8 % of the CO2 that was introduced by the exhaust stream from the upper suite. This rather small concentration indicates that the CO2 exhausted has largely dispersed before it can enter the ERV inlet of the lower suite. This finding of dispersion supports the view that no appreciable cross contamination was observed during the first laboratory test. Based on these initial laboratory tests, one might conclude that so long as a vertical separation of 2.5 m or more is maintained between the outlet of one ERV and the inlet of another ERV, no appreciable cross contamination will occur. However, it must be remembered that the laboratory test conditions involved no wind. To investigate the effects of wind and other variables such as exhaust air velocity and vent angle, computer modeling was used. 373
6 COMPUTER MODELING Computational fluid dynamics modeling allowed additional investigations to be carried out so that the effects of variables including vent cap angle, exhaust air velocity, and wind, could be evaluated without the necessity of trying to generate these conditions in a laboratory setting. To validate the computer modeling results, the laboratory observations, based on the flow rate and vent cap angle tested, were used to calibrate the computer model. Using a computer model to simulate the 3D air flow field around a building is a challenging problem. While several approaches were contemplated, including the use of a Gaussian Dispersion Model to calculate the transfer of any given contaminant from one source to another, in the end, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis program known as ANSYS was used. Computer modeling of the laboratory mock-up included a five step process: geometric modeling; applying a mesh to the geometry; setting up boundary conditions and key solver preferences; running the simulation; and viewing a graphical representation of the results. All five steps were completed sequentially. The first base computer model was developed and used to simulate the mock-up of the two condominium suites that were tested in the laboratory. The exhaust flow rate in the model was fixed at the ERV flow rate of 21.1 L/s, the same flow rate used in the laboratory testing. By comparing the computer model results with the laboratory dilution results shown in Figure 1, the computer model could be calibrated. It was found, after several simulations using various vent angles, that a model which included a 1% turbulence factor, and a 50 vent cap angle, produced results which were most similar to the laboratory results. Once calibrated, various vent angles were simulated. Figure 2 shows the resulting flow paths of maximum plume concentration for various vent angles. Clearly, and as expected, at a vent angle of 90, contaminants flow furthest from the building. At smaller angles, contaminants remain closer to the building. 374
7 FIGURE 2: CFD MODEL CO2 PLUME PATHS FOR VARIOUS VENT ANGLES SHOWN WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Superimposed on Figure 2 are the experimental CO2 concentration values reproduced from Figure 1. Figure 2 reveals that most of the local maximum CO2 concentrations from the laboratory observations lie between the modeled 45 and 60 vent angles. As noted, 42 is the angle of the vent cap louvers used in the laboratory testing. Although these louvers are positioned at 42, the observed flow from the exhaust vent, and the resulting concentrations of CO2, more closely resembles computer models which have a 50 vent cap. This is likely because the modeled vent cap consisted of a single louver, as opposed to the five louvers on the vent cap used in the lab. The multiple louvers will yield a different resultant air flow direction than a single louver. This observation is consistent with the images shown in Figure 3. In the left image of Figure 3, theatrical smoke has been used to illustrate the plume path from the ERV outlet with 42 louvers. This image is most similar to the CFD modeling result using an ERV outlet with a 50 outlet cap. Given the results shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4, a 50 vent cap was used as the base case in the CFD models in order to evaluate the effects of exhaust air velocity, and the effects of wind. 375
8 FIGURE 3: THEATRICAL SMOKE EXHAUSTED THROUGH AN ERV VENT WITH 42 O LOUVERS (SHOWN ON THE LEFT) COMPARED TO CFD MODEL RESULTS OF AN ERV VENT WITH 50 O VENT CAP (SHOWN ON THE RIGHT) In the exhaust speed simulations, exhaust air speeds were varied by +/- 25 % from the original test velocity of 1.3 m/s. From a comparison between the exhaust paths for the 0.99 m/s, 1.3 m/s, and 1.65 m/s vent velocities, it is evident that the exhaust speed minimally impacts the location of the contaminant air flow path. The flow paths were essentially the same for the three different vent velocities. However, as the vent velocity increases, the % of CO2 remaining at a given point also increases. This occurs because the increase in the exhaust vent air speed also increases the quantity of CO2 exhausted. For example, 3.3m along the flow path, the % of CO2 remaining varies from 4 % at 0.99 m/s to 20 % at 1.65 m/s. In the laboratory tests, an exhaust vent velocity of 1.3 m/s was used as it was thought that cross contamination was more likely to occur at low ventilation speeds. However, the modeling results show that cross contamination is actually more likely to occur at higher vent velocities. The final variable to be tested with the CFD model was the effect of wind on the model suites. Three different wind directions were simulated using air moving at 0.25 m/s: one wind direction was parallel to the broad face of the model suites (side wind); one wind direction was perpendicular and toward the broad face of the model suites (head wind); and one wind direction was at 45 to the broad face of the model suites (cross wind). An additional cross wind condition was simulated using a wind velocity of 0.35 m/s. In all of the wind simulations, CO2 was exhausted through a vent cap of
9 Information about the locations of the points of maximum contaminant concentration in the plume for each of the modeled wind cases was gathered. Figures 4 shows the percentage of CO2 remaining at various points along the line of highest concentration for each case. Of greatest concern are the plumes that remain in close proximity to the face of the building: the head wind and cross wind B cases. FIGURES 4: PERCENTAGE CO2 REMAINING OF POINTS ALONG LINE OF MAXIMUM CONCENTRATION While the concentration of the exhaust plumes close to the wall is greater than the acceptable 15 % limit as defined by CAN/CSA standard F326 M9, these points must also be viewed in the context of the location of adjacent ERV intakes, as shown in Figure 5. Included in this figure, is a 1.8 m radius line from the ERV exhaust vent indicating the industry standard for the separation distance between the intake and exhaust vents. The point concentrations shown all fall within 0.6 m outboard of the wall, and therefore, are likely to be drawn into an ERV inlet. 377
10 FIGURE 5: DISPERSION AND CONCENTRATION OF PLUMES WITHIN 0.6M OF THE WALL FACE As shown, the side wind adequately disperses the CO2 beyond the 1.8 m radius to minimize the chance of cross-contamination. However, when the wind direction shifts toward the wall face (as is the case with the head wind, cross wind A and cross wind B), there are points within the intake range of the neighbouring ERV inlets that are greater than the acceptable 15 % contamination threshold. This indicates the need for further separation of vents or other means of dispersing contaminants such as changes to the vent angle. DISCUSSION The purpose of the laboratory testing and computer modeling was to investigate whether airborne contaminants can move from an exhaust vent to a fresh air supply vent. The laboratory testing demonstrated that contaminants can remain at high concentrations near a building wall after they have been exhausted from an ERV. These laboratory tests, which were conducted at relatively low ERV flow rates (i.e L/s), were useful in calibrating a CFD model of the laboratory mock-up. The CFD modeling results revealed that the angle of the exhaust vent cap determines how far contaminants will be directed away from the building. Exhaust vents with smaller louver angles, for example 30 from the vertical, will result in contaminants that remain closer to the wall, and thus, be more likely to be drawn back into a building. Exhaust cap vents with larger louver angles, ideally 90 from the vertical, will direct the contaminant furthest from the wall. Modeling exhaust air vent velocities showed that as velocities were varied from the base case of 1.3 m/s +/ %, the flow paths essentially remained the same. However, at higher vent velocities, the concentration of contaminants was higher at a given point along the air flow path. This means that at higher vent velocities, contaminant concentrations close to the building may be greater. The effects of light winds were also evaluated using CFD modeling. As shown in Figure 5, under light cross wind conditions, cross contamination can possibly occur even when the intake and exhaust ducts are 378
11 separated by the industry standard distance of 1.8 m. A survey of four recently constructed MURBs found that intake and exhaust vent separation distances varied between 1.8 m and 2.3 m (Parker, 2012). Even at 2.3 m, Figure 5 reveals that cross contamination can still occur. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH 1. In the laboratory study, it was shown that a standard suite-based ventilation system operating on a low speed (21.1 L/s) did not experience cross contamination under the following conditions: the outside air was still, there were no buoyancy effects, and the inlet and exhaust ducts were separated by 2.5 m. This separation distance exceeded the current Ontario industry standard. At higher ventilation rates, the likelihood of cross contamination occurring increases as higher concentrations of contaminants will be present closer to the wall face. Since most tests were conducted at low-flow rates, further calibrated CFD modeling should be carried out to investigate the potential effects of higher ventilation rates on the occurrence of cross contamination. 2. It was also shown that the exhaust vent angle is an important consideration. Where the vent angle is 90 from the vertical, contaminants are directed further from the building. Thus, contaminants are less likely to be drawn into an adjacent inlet duct. Although louvers are commonly used to protect against rain penetration, it is possible to design an outlet cap and duct assembly so that it reduces water ingress and drains any water that penetrates the cap. Such a vent cap could be used as an inexpensive retrofit measure in cases where cross contamination has been reported. 3. Certain wind conditions can increase the likelihood of cross contamination. Although only light winds in a few directions were modeled, the wind modeling results revealed that air movement can lead to exhausted contaminants being pushed back toward the building where they can be drawn into an adjacent air inlet. Further modeling of various wind speeds and directions should be carried out and contaminant concentrations occurring along the face of the building should be determined. 4. This study is based on CFD modeling that was calibrated using a laboratory mock-up. Following further CFD modeling, an actual building should be monitored and tested using a tracer gas under a variety of environmental conditions. The observations should then be compared to model results to improve the accuracy of modeling predictions. 5. There is a need for developing a uniform standard for determining the separation distances between inlet and exhaust outlets in MURBs. While further research is needed to support such a standard, it would be of great assistance to building designers. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the National Science and Engineering Research Council Industrial Postgraduate Scholarship program, Halsall and Associates, and the University of Toronto s Neil B. Hutcheon Bequest. 379
12 REFERENCES ASHRAE. (2010). Standard Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. Standard Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. Atlanta, United States of America: ASHRAE. ASHRAE. (2013). Standard Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. Standard Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. Atlanta, United States of America: ASHRAE. ASHRAE. (2010). Standard Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Low-Rise Residential Buildings. Standard Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Low-Rise Residential Buildings. Atlanta, United States of America: ASHRAE. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. (2003). Ventilation Systems for Multi-Unit Residential Building: Performance Requirements and Alternative Approaches. Vancouver: The Sheltair Group Resource Consultants Inc. Cooke, G. (2008). Spacing of Exterior Vents for HRVs with respect to Ontario Building Code Compliance. Cambridge: Air Solutions. Fehlmann, J. and Wanner, H.U. Indoor Climate and Indoor Air Quality in Residential Buildings. Indoor Air, vol. 3, issue 1, (1993) pp Liu, R., Energy consumption and energy intensity in multi-unit residential buildings (MURBs) in Canada, Canadian Building Energy End-Use Data and Analysis Centre, Parker, C.A. (2012). Improving the Effectiveness of In-Suite Ventilation Systems with Respect to Cross Contamination and Odour Transmission in MURBs. M.A.Sc. thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. Touchie, M.F., Binkley, C, Pressnail, K.D. Correlating Energy Consumption with Multi-Unit Residential Building Characteristics in the City of Toronto, Energy and Buildings 66 (2013) pp
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