Environmental and socioeconomic impacts of surface mining operations: A review of the Greek experience
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1 Environmental and socioeconomic impacts of surface mining operations: A review of the Greek experience Francis F. Pavloudakis Public Power Corporation SA West Macedonia Lignite Centre, P.O.Box 21, Ptolemais , Greece Tel/Fax: , fpav@hol.gr ABSTRACT Surface mining is a vital industrial activity that sustained the economic growth of Greek energy, cement and industrial minerals sectors. However, for numerous groups of interest every surface mine is a potential threat for the environment, public health and socioeconomic activities. Although the legal and regulatory framework provides mining companies with the basic directions regarding environmental protection and land reclamation, the development of a new strategy, which should be based on the sustainable development principles, is expected to improve dramatically the effectiveness of environmental management actions and to minimize the arguments with local authorities and other interested groups. 1. INTRODUCTION Surface mining operations usually are long-term projects that require extremely high levels of investment. Thus, any decision concerning the development of a new surface mine should be based on a thorough techno-economical study, which will take into account any risks and uncertainties related to various geological, technical, technological, geotechnical, financial, environmental and political factors. Considering in particular environmental risks, these play a significant role in mine planning procedures. Direct factors are the expenditures related to environmental management during the entire mine lifetime and the financial liabilities of the legislation, while indirect factors are related to the reactions of local authorities. Environmental protection is nowadays a significant priority for the society. The citizens expect from their governments, local authorities and the industry to protect the environment and to inform them about the impacts of every mining project on it. Therefore, the environmental management has become a major issue for all mining companies, which try to assess the potential impacts of their operation, to improve their environmental performance and to meet the standards specified by the laws and regulations that are in force. 2. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS In Greece, the legal framework that regulates all these issues was established relatively late. The first Environmental Protection Act was voted in the Greek Parliament in The implementation of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process, which was mentioned in this Act, was described in detail in the Ministerial Decision four years later. At that time, all mining companies faced a lot of difficulties trying to comply with the new legal status. The paradigm of West Macedonia Lignite Centre,
2 deposit exploration land expropriation system boundaries excavation (with BWE) (belt-conv) distribution excavation with conventional equipment (trucks) water pumping from wells and pumping stations Modification of morphology Removal of topsoil Changes in land uses Particulate matter (fly ash) Air emissions (CxHy, COx, SOx, NOx) Noise, vibration & other disturbances damping agricultural, recreational, etc activities of the local communities backfilling RESTORED AREAS lignite or Radiations waste waste irrigation Discharges from pit protection wells (belt-conv) ash storage / blending lignite to the Power Plant (trucks) sedimentation ponds or dust depration workshops & other supporting activities mechanical S&M electrical S&M vehicles S&M construction works logistics management & administration Discharges of surface water collected in pit Discharges from WWTP Discharges from water/oil separators Surface run-off Municipal waste Used oils & lubricants Used tires & conv. belts Used bateries PCB's & other hazardous waste Old machinery & spare parts Recyclable materials (e.g. metals) electricity Figure 1: Main components of an open-pit lignite mine and waste outflows released to the environment which received environmental permits ten years after the submission of the relevant EIA study, is the most appropriate for testifying the situation. Today, significant delays still exist due to the bureaucratic procedure for receiving the exploitation rights of a mineral deposit concession. Nevertheless, all mining and quarrying projects are necessary to submit an EIA study and to operate following the Environmental Permits that have been approved by the regulatory authority. In the case of the open-pit mining complex of Ptolemais the entire quantity of the produced lignite is fed to thermal power plants located at distances of a few kilometers. In addition, the mines and thermal power plants belong to the same power utility. Thus, it was decided the boundaries of the examined environmental system to include all the mines and power plants. Figure 1 presents schematically the components of the lignite and power production system. The main waste outflows that are potential threats for the soil, water and air of the surrounding area are listed to the right side of the system boundaries. In general, open-pit lignite mines are complex operations that can affect numerous environmental constituents in various ways [Sengupta, 1993, Clarke, 1995]. In the examined case, the mechanisms that are considered to have greater potential of causing environmental damage are the following [Pavloudakis & Roumpos, 2004]: Modification of morphology changes in hydrological pattern & loss of wild animal habitat & degradation of landscape value reduction of property value
3 Topsoil removal loss of agricultural land & increased surface run-off loss of incomes & water pollution Particulate matter (fly ash) air pollution life quality degradation Air emissions (C x H y, CO x, SO x, NO x ) air pollution life quality degradation & contribution to greenhouse effect Disturbances (noise, vibrations, etc) life quality degradation & reduction of property value Radiations danger for human health Discharges from pit protection wells drop of water table & increased flow in streams irrigation problems & floods & degradation of potential water uses Surface run-off and discharges from surface water collected in pit suspended solids in streams aquatic life disturbance & floods & degradation of potential water uses Discharges from waste water treatment plants and water / oil separators pollution and contamination of aquatic receivers aquatic life disturbance & degradation of potential water uses Improper management of municipal and special/hazardous waste increased concentration of toxic substances in soils / waters & aesthetic problems degradation of the potential land and water uses life quality degradation & danger for human health. 3. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ACTIONS IN SURFACE MINING SITES First priority of every land reclamation programme is the rapid re-integration of the disturbed areas into the landscape. Land reclamation implies waste-rock dumping, surface contouring, topsoil spreading and revegetation. Waste-rock surfaces must be sampled and analysed for identifying the acidification grade, the total sulphur content and total alkalinity content. For deep samples (40-50cm) the contents of P 2 O 5, potassium, calcium and magnesium accessible to plants must also be determined. The use of four sampling points per hectare is suggested. Based on the results of those analyses, decisions relevant to the need of topsoil spreading, the type of trees that must be planted, the type and quantities of fertilizers and soil amendments that must be spread, etc. can be more effective. As far as the formation of a topsoil cover is concerned, the best practice is the direct of topsoil from an active mining area to the reclaimed surface. If this is impossible, temporary stockpiling of topsoil is suggested. The usually applied thickness of topsoil cover is about 50cm. However, there are cases where there is no need of topsoil, while in other cases a 1 m thick layer is inadequate to support quick and lasting vegetation. Finally, revegetation is carried out using plant material taken from tree nurseries. Trees are planted with a narrow spacing. They usually belong to native species in order to ensure that a high percentage of the planted material will finally grow. Periodic irrigation, topsoil blending with ash or selected overburden seams and use of fertilisers are some techniques that can accelerate revegetation. Furthermore, the rational environmental management of mine sites is closely related to the protection of water bodies degraded by mining. Every mining company should have developed a water protection strategy that should be integrated with the programme of
4 the local or regional watershed management authority. Mining activities must not interfere with existing plans that try to maintain adequate supply of freshwater of suitable quality for human use and to support aquatic and other ecosystems [Pavloudakis & Roumpos, 2004]. 4. SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS A major issue that is always investigated during decision-making procedures regarding the development of surface mines is public protest. For numerous groups of interest, including local authorities, chambers, ecological organizations, etc, a mine is a potential threat for the environment, public health and socioeconomic activities that interfere with it. For this reason, any proposal for further development of mining sites is either rejected or it is accepted after setting a series of terms and conditions. In general, the development of a surface mine affects the socioeconomic activities of local communities by the following ways: Reduced access to public utilities (e.g. ation) Economy o Employment o Money inflow to local economy Change of land uses o Farmland o Grazing o Tourism - Recreation o Residential (relocation of villages) Culture o Lifestyle o Population density o Archaeological sites & monuments Health and safety In the case of the Greek lignite surface mines the socioeconomic issues that brought the mining enterprise into conflict with local authorities was: resettlement of villages and land expropriation [Pavloudakis et al, 2006:2]. Up to now, the resettlement of villages is considered as an alternative for surface mines development only if lignite deposits are located under inhabited areas. In these cases the mining company is obliged to pay compensations for every private property and for public buildings and infrastructures. Moreover, the company must cooperate with local authorities for the selection of the site, where the community will be resettled, and for the development of new infrastructures that will allow early move of people to the new village. However, during the last years there is a continuously growing pressure from communities that claim for resettlement due to the violation of their life standards caused by the various impacts of surface mining. The expropriation of the land required for the development of a new surface mine is a time-consuming procedure that is normally come to an end in the Court, which determines the unit prices for the different components of private properties (land, trees, fences, irrigation wells, etc) that will be destructed due to excavations or waste dumping. According to recent Court judgements, the compensation of the
5 land owners is calculated based on the property items that are found in each piece of land, no matter when and how these items were placed in it. The above-mentioned conflicts can be overcome if local authorities are involved in decision-making processes. Public participation enables productive use of inputs and perceptions from local authorities, public interest groups and private citizens. Ideally, public involvement is a continuous communication process that keeps the public informed about the potential impacts of a project and, at the same time, allows a feedback from citizens to public officials and to people, who are involved in the mine planning and exploitation processes. In practise, the level of public involvement can range from awareness to active participation in project planning activities [Manoliadis, 2002]. However, according to the regulations of the Greek legislative framework, public involvement is possible only during the discussion of the EIA study in the Prefecture Council. There, all public interest groups and private citizens can express their opposition and stop the environmental permits approval. The use of this legal right by local authorities is a routine in cases of site-selection studies for landfills and other waste management facilities but also in cases of mining activities. Obviously, this procedure does not favour the active participation of public interest groups in the elaboration of EIA studies. On the contrary, these public groups often attend the meeting of the Prefecture Council and submit studies that reach to the opposite conclusion, leading the entire process to failure and causing significant delays to the mine development project [Pavloudakis et al, 2006:1]. 5. THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE MINE EXPLOITATION According to the information presented above, the efficiency of a mine-land management programme is closely related to the efficiency of certain measures that must be applied during the active mining period. Therefore, the development of a procedure that allows periodical review of the applied measures is necessary. This procedure can be based on a series of economic, environmental, and social indicators, which are representative of the monitored system, have a scientific basis, are quantifiable, without social bias, and represent manageable processes [van Zyl et al, 2003]. In May 2003, the members of International Council on Mining & Metals (ICMM) committed themselves to implement and measure their performance against 10 sustainable development principles. The 10 principles were developed by benchmarking against other leading global standards including: the 1992 Rio Declaration, the Global Reporting Initiative, the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, the World Bank Operational Policies, etc. These principles, which provide to the mining and metal companies a process framework for moving things towards sustainability, are the following [ICMM, 2007:1, 2]: Implement and maintain ethical business practices and sound systems of corporate governance Integrate sustainable development considerations within the corporate decisionmaking process Uphold fundamental human rights and respect cultures, customs and values in dealings with employees and others who are affected by mining activities Implement risk management strategies based on valid data and sound science Seek continual improvement of health and safety performance
6 Seek continual improvement of environmental performance Contribute to conservation of biodiversity and integrated approaches to land use planning Facilitate and encourage responsible product design, use, re-use, recycling and disposal of mining and metal products Contribute to the social, economic and institutional development of the local communities Implement effective and transparent engagement, communication and independently verified reporting arrangements with stakeholders. Furthermore, Sustainable Mining Roundtable (SMR), an open collaboration scheme sponsored by US Forest Services and US Geological Survey, has proposed a series of indicators that cover a broad range of attributes of energy and minerals systems. The indicators are organised based on four criteria and 18 sub-criteria [van Zyl et al, 2003]: Capacity to produce commodities (13 indicators) o Resources o Exploration capacity. o Production (extractive) capacity. o Processing capacity (smelting, refining, and ation). o Use of energy and minerals. Environmental quality (7 indicators) o Ambient environment. o Management of extraction and processing. o Reclamation/remediation/restoration of extraction sites. o Environmental releases. Economic, cultural and social benefits (10 indicators) o Local. o National. o Recreation and tourism. o Cultural, social, and spiritual needs. o Equity (poverty levels) Legal and institutional framework (8 indicators) o Legal o Institutional o Economic framework Sustainability indicators are useful as analytical, explanatory, communication, planning, and performance assessment tools that turn vast amounts of analyzed data into meaningful and relevant information. These indicators allow a holistic comparative analysis, which takes into account numerous economic, environmental, social and political aspects of surface mines development, operation and closure. In this way, sustainability criteria and indicators may contribute to a viable future of mining industry, recognising the essential role of metals and minerals for modern living. 6. CONCLUSIONS Environmental protection and land reclamation are widely recognised as key-elements for the development of every surface mining activity. Although the legal framework that is currently in force regulates effectively most of the relevant issues, some problems
7 still exist. The implementation of techniques that make possible the guided public involvement in the impact assessment procedure is an option that can reduce dramatically the protests against plans for the development of new mines. Moreover, the development of an environmental management strategy, which will be based on both remedial and preventive actions, starting from the early stages of mine development, is possible to improve the overall environmental performance of a mine. The use of a methodology that incorporates the main principles of sustainability allows further the assessment of all environmental threats associated with the mine operation throughout its life cycle. Also, it allows the development of processes that support the monitoring and periodic evaluation of the environmental management strategy and the decision making as far as the optimal mine development strategy is concerned. REFERENCES Clarke, L.B., (1995). Coal Mining and water quality, IEA (International Energy Agency) - Coal Research, London, UK. ICMM, (2007:1). Annual Review 2006: Setting the standards to meet the challenge of sustainable development, Intl. Council on Mining & Metals - ICMM, London, p.28. ICMM, (2007:2). Sustainable Development Framework: Working together to improve industry performance, Intl. Council on Mining & Metals - ICMM, London, p.20. Manoliadis, O. (2002). Environmental Planning: Study & Assessment of Environmental Impacts. Ion Publications (in Greek). Pavloudakis, F., Roumpos C. (2004). Evaluation of land reclamation and environmental protection strategies in open-pit lignite mines. Intl. Conf. on Advances in Mineral Resources Management and Environmental Geotechnology, Hania, Greece, 9-11 June 2004, pp Pavloudakis, F., Roumpos C., Sachanidis C., Galetakis M. (2006:1). Environmental impacts assessment of surface mining operations: A review of the Greek experience. 15th Intl. Symposium of Mine Planning & Equipment Selection, Torino, Italy, Sept Pavloudakis, F., Roumpos C., Galetakis M. (2006:2). Critical environmental and social parameters affecting the development of new surface mines. 2nd Intl. Conf. on Advances in Mineral Resources Management and Environmental Geotechnology, Hania, Greece, Sept. 2006, pp Sengupta, M. (1993). Environmental Impacts of Mining: Monitoring, Restoration and Control, CRC Press, p Van Zyl D., Shields D., Wagner L., (2003). U.S. Sustainable Minerals Roundtable. mines/smr.
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