A highly-advanced solar house with solar thermal and sky radiation cooling

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1 Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215±228 A highly-advanced solar house with solar thermal and sky radiation cooling T.S. Saitoh* Department of Aeronautics and Space Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai , Japan Abstract A unique energy-independent house (`HARBEMAN house'; HARmony BEtween Man And Nature) incorporating solar thermal, underground coolers, sky radiation cooling, photovoltaic electricity generation and rain-water collection was built in Sendai (latitude; north and longitude; east), Japan during July, The average solar energy received on a horizontal surface there in January is 7900 kj/m 2 /day. This paper reports the experimental results since September 1996 to date. The annual variations of water temperature in the underground main tank, heating /cooling/domestic hot water demands, collected and emitted heats by solar collector and sky radiator, were measured. The paper also clari es the method of computer simulation results for the HARBEMAN house and its results compared with the annual experimental data. The proposed HARBEMAN house, which meets almost all its energy demands, including space heating and cooling, domestic hot water, electricity generated by photovoltaic cell and rainwater for standard Japanese homes. The proposed system has two operational modes: (i) a long-term thermal energy storage mode extending from September to March and (ii) a long-term cool storage mode extending from April to August. The system is intended to utilize as little energy as possible to collect and emit the heat. This paper also clari es the primary energy consumption, the external costs (externalities) and the means for the reduction of carbon-dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions. The primary-energy consumption and carbon-dioxide emissions of the proposed house are only onetenth of those of the conventional standard house. Moreover, the thermal performance of this house will be compared with the results of the IEA solar low-energy house TASK 13. Finally, this paper validates the external costs of this house, which have been intensively discussed in recent years in European countries. The present energy-su cient house will be attempting in 21st century to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, which will be one of the key factors for mitigating global warming. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. * Tel.: ; fax: address: saitoh@cc.mech.tohoku.ac.jp (T.S. Saitoh) /99/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S (99)

2 216 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215± Introduction The third conference of the Parties to the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP3) held in December 1998 in Kyoto urged the industrialized nations to reduce carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions by 5.2% (on average) below 1990 levels by 2008 (Kyoto protocol). To meet this severe requirement, a unique energyindependent (autonomous) house incorporating sky-radiation cooling and solar thermal, underground coolness, sky radiation energies, and photovoltaic electricitygeneration was constructed in July, 1996 in Sendai, Japan. The present article introduces the concept of this advanced solar house and also the experimental results on the long-term thermal energy storage (TES) mode, and its characteristics, such as heat loss from the underground reservoir and long-term variation of the water temperature since early September, 1996 to date. There are two operational modes: (i) a long-term thermal energy storage mode extending from September to late March, in which solar energy is collected and stored in an underground water tank for the space heating and domestic hot water needs from early December to late March; and (ii) a long-term cool storage mode extending from April to mid-june, in which the water of the same tank is cooled by employing sky radiation cooling devices. The system is intended to utilize as little energy as possible to collect and emit the heat. It had been argued that utilization of sky radiation cooling in the Japanese climate is almost impossible due to its high relative humidity (80±90% in most areas) in summer. This di culty was overcome by changing the period of sky radiator operation: the water of the underground reservoir is chilled in advance in spring when the ambient temperature and humidity are relatively low. Long-term thermal energy storage systems employing underground reservoirs have been constructed in the United States [1,2], Canada, Sweden [3] and Japan [4,6±9]. However, most of the past systems are concerned only with space heating and supplying of the domestic hot water, unlike the present one which considers multiple utilization of natural energies including sky-radiation cooling. This article reports experimental results on the proposed natural energy autonomous house, which we call ``HARBEMAN HOUSE'' (HARmony BEtween Man And Nature). 2. Proposed energy-su cient house: HARBEMAN house Fig. 1 shows a schematic of a newly constructed residential house owned by the author, which is located in Sendai, Japan (latitude and longitude north and east, respectively). The average solar energy received on a horizontal surface in January is 7.9 MJ/m 2 /day. The number of degree-days in Sendai is approximately 2800 and the total cooling load is 2000 MJ on average. The solar collector of the liquid-type (having an area of 30.4 m 2 ) is installed on the top of this house with a tilt angle of 45 from the horizontal. The azimuth angle of the collector is 20 to the east. To prevent freezing in winter, the water in the collectors and pipes are automatically drained back to the main tank by magnetic valves.

3 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215± Fig. 1. Illustrative view of HARBEMAN house. The sky radiators used consist of uncovered copper tubes with aluminum ns (the same structure as the solar collector except for glazing and insulation), which were painted black (partially selective surface, area: 15.2 m 2 ), and placed with a tilt angle 10 (azimuth angle: 20 to the west). The capacity of the underground main tank is about 31 m 3 with insulation of FRP coated polyurethane of 150 mm thickness. The entire housing was insulated by glass wool of 100±350 mm thickness. The total oor area is approximately 230 m 2. In addition to the above mentioned facilities and equipment, this house has 1.6 m 3 auxiliary tank situated in the basement and a 600 W heat-pump, which utilizes night-time electricity. This auxiliary tank is utilized during the cool storage mode to provide space heating and domestic hot-water supply demands. The operation and control of this house is fully done by 128 microprocessors and a personal computer. The total amount of space heating, cooling, hot water supply, and rain water will provide approximately 117 GJ per year, which saves about 4500 US$ per year. Moreover, the external costs (or externalities) including emissions of carbon dioxide, NO x,so x, CO and SPM (suspended particulate matter) and so on, which will be saved annually, amount to at least 28,000 US$. If this HARBEMAN house were incorporated in all of Japanese residences in the future, it will save about 20% of the total primary-energy consumed annually in Japan. 3. Principal speci cations (see Table 1) The house features an underground water tank, a solar collector, a sky radiator, a photovoltaic cell, an incinerator for waste, an auxiliary tank and a tank for rainwater storage.

4 218 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215±228 Table 1 HARBEMAN house speci cations Location Sendai (latitude N, longitude E) 124 metres above sea level Solar collector Area 30.4 m 2 Tilt angle 45 (due south) Azimuth angle 20 East Type Liquid Flow rate /min Sky radiator Area 15.2 m 2 Tilt angle 5 Flow rate /min Underground water tank Capacity Insulation thickness (polyurethane, FRP coated) Concrete thickness 31.0 m 3 ( ) 0.15 m/0.10 m 0.20 m Auxiliary tank Capacity 1.6 m 3 Photovoltaic cell Type Single crystalline Area 11.5 m 2 Output 1.5 kw Heated oor area 185 m 2 Total oor area 230 m 2 Housing insulation (Glass wool) Roof The others Windows Glazing Overall heat transfer coe cient (R-value) 2535 cm 10 cm Double pane glass 0.24 kcal/m 2 h C Low emission lm Transmissivity 0.5 Re ectivity 0.78 Overall heat transfer coe cient (R-Value) 0.85 kcal/m 2 h C Rainwater tank Capacity 2.0 m 3 Heat pump Tank Liquid±liquid, electric Power 600 W COP 2.0±3.0

5 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215± The dimensions of the underground water-tank are 7.0 m by 2.1 m by 2.1 m in depth. The tank is made of poured concrete (thickness 0.25 m) with polyurethane insulation 0.15 m thick. It contains 31,000 litres of water. The auxiliary tank has the dimensions of 2.0 m by 0.6 m by 1.4 m in depth and is made of stainless steel with glass wool insulation 0.10 m thick it contains 1600 litres of water. Copper-constantan thermocouples are set up at more than 35 points in the wall, water and soil in order to measure the temperature and the heat uxes around the tank. The solar collector (manufactured by Showa Aluminum Ltd, Japan and having an area of 30.4 m 2, an intercept Fr of 0.8 and an overall coe cient of heat loss Uo of 5 W/m 2 K, single glazed) is installed on the roof of the house with a tilt angle of 45 from the horizontal. The azimuth angle is 20 to the east. This tilt angle was determined by a computer simulation to increase the collector e ciency in winter and also permit easy snow removal from the collector surface. The water is circulated by a pump and the ow rate was xed to be about 16 litres/min. To prevent freezing in winter, the water in the collectors and pipes is automatically drained back to the underground tank by magnetic valves. The sky radiators used are uncovered nned copper pipe, painted with special black lacquer (area: 15.2 m 2 ), and placed due north with a tilt angle of 10 and azimuth angle of 20 to the west. The ow rate of the circulating pump was xed to be 12 litres/min, which was chosen to give the maximum cooling e ciency. Generally fan coil units were used for space heating and cooling, but thermopanels were used in the entrance hall, toilet and stairway spaces. The operational control of this house is quite complicated, because there are more than 100 controlling magnet, motored and other valves as well as, thermocouples and sensors with a total length of more than 2000 m. Further there are two operational modes, thermal-storage and cool-storage modes. For this reason, it was decided to operate this house by a personal computer and 128 microprocessors. Relatively simple operations are done by the microprocessors like controlling the fan coil units and the pumps. However, controlling the solar collector and sky radiator loops was done by a personal computer. A special computer code for this system was composed in the BASIC language (total statement number: 3000). This house is so complicated that it could not be operated without the aid of the computer. 4. Experimental results for long-term thermal-energy storage mode This section gives the experimental results covering the period from August 1996 to March Fig. 2 shows the average ambient temperature and solar radiation at the location (Kaigamori, Sendai). The average ambient temperature is slightly lower than the data reported by the local meteorological observatory in Sendai. Fig. 3 (a) and (b) shows the diurnal variations of the ambient temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation and so on. Fig. 4 gives the long-term variations of the average water-temperature of the main underground TES tank during the 2 years. At the beginning of November 1996, the

6 220 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215±228 Fig. 2. Average ambient temperature and solar radiation in Sendai. maximum average water temperature reached 62 C. However, owing to a large space heating demand in December, January and February, it fell below the critical temperature of 43 C, which is required to provide su cient space-heating power. In this period, the auxiliary heating by a city-gas powered boiler was operated. Also shown in the gure is the computer simulation results using the meteorological data provided by Sendai local meteorological observatory. The agreement between the two is excellent. The space heating and domestic hot-water supply demands during the period from September to February are plotted in Fig. 5. A comparison of the space-cooling load per square metre per hour for each room is plotted in Fig. 6. It is especially noted that the space cooling load for the Japanese traditional room (with shoji: paper lattice, tatami mat, etc.) gave the lowest value except for the underground room. 5. Experimental results for long-term cool-storage mode This section gives the experimental data for the cool-storage mode. Fig. 7 shows the seasonal variation of the total cooling power per day from March 30 to early May, The minimum water temperature attained was 5.1 C. After May 3rd, 1997, a heat pump (operated with night-time electricity) was used to assist the cooling ability. In Fig. 8 (a) and (b), the experimental cooling performance of the sky radiator was indicated. The re ector was placed on the vertical wall of the house to prevent back radiation from the housing surface. Fig. 8 (a) shows the transient variations of ambient temperature, humidity as well as radiator inlet and outlet water temperatures. The cooling power is plotted in Fig. 8 (b). The gure also includes the contribution of

7 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215± convective heat-transfer. This experimental cooling power was in good agreement with the simulated one. 6. Primary-energy consumption of the HARBEMAN house More than 80% of the primary energy consumed domestically in Japan has been imported from overseas. Of these, as far as oil is concerned, 99.7% has been Fig. 3. (a) Diurnal variation of ambient temperature relative humidity and room temperature. (b) Diurnal variation of solar radiation, collected heat, collector e ciency, as well as inlet and oulet temperatures of solar collector.

8 222 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215±228 Fig. 4. Annual variation of main tanks, water-temperature. Fig. 5. Computer simulation and measured results for space heating and domestic hot-water. imported. The carbon-dioxide emissions of Japan are the fourth largest per country in the world. Therefore, it is of crucial importance for Japan to reduce its fossil-fuel consumption. Residential energy consumption amounts to about 25% of Japan's total energyconsumption. So, one of the countermeasures to reduce it is an e cient utilization of the fossil energy and the utilization of natural energy including solar, sky radiation, and other energies. Table 2 shows a comparison of the primary-energy consumptions for the proposed HARBEMAN house and the conventional energy-conservation house. It is

9 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215± Fig. 6. Comparison of space cooling-load for each room in the HARBEMAN house. Fig. 7. The seasonal variation of the total cooling power. especially noted here that the fossil-fuel consumption of the HARBEMAN house is about one-tenth of the conventional house. If we consider the increase of global population in the future, it is very important to reduce the consumption of energy and resources to only one-tenth of the present value.

10 224 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215±228 Fig. 8. (a) The time variation of ambient temperature, relative humidity as well as radiator inlet and outlet temperatures. (b) The time variation of the cooling power. 7. IEA Solar house Next, we intend to compare the performance of the low energy houses of the International Energy Agency (IEA) Task 13, Solar Heating and Cooling Program. The 15 solar low-energy houses in 12 countries have been built as part of an international collaboration within the framework of Task 13 of the above IEA- SHAC [5]. The reported total annual energy-consumptions for all end uses averages only 45 kwh/m 2 and electricity demand is only 18 kwh/m 2.

11 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215± These houses have been designed to attain very low energy-consumptions by using simple passive solar design principles. In order to reduce the heat loss, the building is insulated very well (K-values less than 0.2 W/m 2 /K). All kinds of devices and means including passive direct gain through advanced windows, super insulation, heat recovery systems, low energy appliances, and integrated mechanical systems. Fig. 9 shows the heat losses in watts per degree of temperature di erence between the inside and outside air. To allow the houses to be compared, the values are per square metre of heated oor area. The average value of the IEA houses is 1 W/m 2 /K and it is 0.81 for the HARBEMAN house. The Denmark, Canada-1 and Sweden houses are less than this value. The total energy requirements of all the houses are shown in Fig. 10. The values of the IEA houses are half or less of the levels common for new constructions in the respective countries. The value of the HARBEMAN house is 39.2 kwh/m 2 and is slightly less than the average. In summary it is concluded that the HARBEMAN house is excellent, even compared with the advanced IEA houses. Table 2 Comparison of fossil-fuel consumption House Primary energy demand (GJ/year) Primary energy per m 2 (MJ/m 2 year) Annual bill for space heating/cooling/domestic hot water/electricity/city water/city gas (US$/year) Fossil-fuel consumption (Oil, l/year) a Conventional house HARBEMAN house b c a Heating value of oil: 9250 kcal/l. b Maximum available energy. c Including PV electricity generated. Fig. 9. Heat losses in IEA solar houses.

12 226 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215±228 Fig. 10. Total energy-requirements of IEA solar house. 8. External costs of the HARBEMAN house The utilization of energy causes damage to a wide range of receptors, including human health, natural ecosystems and the environment. Such damages are referred to as ``external costs'' or ``externalities'', since they are not accounted for in the market price of energy. The current discussion about the environmental and economic e ects of energy utilization has gained international concern in recent years. The European Commission and the US Department of Energy recognized such developments in the early 1990s. The concept of externalities had been established for more than half century in the eld of welfare economics. But evaluation in the energy eld has attracted less attention. The rst and second EC/OECD/IEA Workshops on Energy Externalities were held in Brussels in January 1995 and September 1996, respectively. Externalities are de ned in the European Commission Report as: The costs and bene ts which arise when the social or economic activities of one group of people have an impact on another, and when the rst group fails to fully account for their impacts External costs of the HARBEMAN house We have tried to evaluate the external costs of the HARBEMAN house. Although extensive research has been made in EU countries and in the US the methodology for accounting the externalities is di erent in every project. So, we have devised our own accounting framework for externalities.

13 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215± Table 3 External costs of HARBEMAN house a Accounting factor External costs (US$/year) Space heating/cooling/domestic hot-water supply 5700 Heat island protection (suspended particulate matter included) 8100 CO 2 and NO x emissions 1120 Noble use of petroleum oil 1600 Prevention of cerebral apoplexy 1570 Global warming 730 Reduction of waste 650 Nuclear accident 250 Construction of power plant 220 Rain-water use 220 Peak cut of electricity 50 Fire accident (gas-poisoning included) 30 Oil-tanker accident 10 Energy for construction 30 CO 2 emissions for construction 70 Others 8100 Total a Life of the residence is assumed to be 30 years. This includes urban warming (heat island), carbon-dioxide and nitrogen-oxide emissions, noble use of petroleum oil, cerebral apoplexy, global warming, reduction of waste, nuclear accident, reduction of power plant, rainwater use, peak cut of electricity, re accidents, oil tanker accidents, and energy conservation. Table 3 shows the externalities (tentative) of the HARBEMAN house. The total externalities per year amount to 28,000 US$. The energy costs for space heating/cooling/domestic hot-water supply/electricity are only 4500 US$ per year, but the externalities pertaining to environmental and economic e ects are a tremendous gure. 9. Concluding remarks In this article, a unique energy-su cient `high-tech' house, which is fully operated by microprocessors and a personal computer has been proposed. It utilizes solar thermal, photovoltaic and sky radiation cooling energies and provides almost all the space heating/cooling and domestic hot-water supply demands for a standard Japanese residence. 1. The experimental data from August 1996 to March 1998 were reported and the validity of this unique house is veri ed. 2. This house consumes only one-tenth of the fossil energy compared with the conventional house. It also emits very low amounts carbon dioxide and other pollutant gases and meets ideal requirements in the age of the environment. 3. The external costs of this house are considered to be at least 28,000 US$ per year.

14 228 T.S. Saitoh / Applied Energy 64 (1999) 215± This house uses sky radiation energy for space cooling and this would be paticularly e ective in preventing urban warming (i.e. heat island) if adopters generally in metropolitan areas including Tokyo where it is estimated that the ambient temperature in the summer evening, around 2030 hours will exceed 40 C. Acknowledgements The author extends his thanks to Messrs. T. Fujino and M. Suzuki for their great assistance in data acquisition. References [1] Hottel HC et al. The performance of at-plate solar-heat collectors. Trans of the ASME 1942;64:91± 104. [2] LoÈ f GOG, et al. Residential heating with solar heated air Ð the Colorado solar house, ASHRAE Journal, [3] Roseen R, Perers B. A solar heating plant in Studvik. Sweden Council for Building Research, D21, [4] Nakajima, et al. Konishi solar house. Journal of Japan Solar Energy Society 1978;4-1:26±29. [5] IEA, Solar±low energy houses of IEA Task 13, London: James and James Science Publishers Ltd, Jan, [6] Saitoh TS, Ono T. Utilization of seasonal sky radiation energy for space cooling. J Solar Energy Eng 1984;106:403±7. [7] Saitoh TS, Ono T. Simulative analysis for long-term underground cool storage incorporating sky radiation cooling. J Solar Energy Eng 1984;106:493±6. [8] Saitoh TS, Matsuhashi H, Ono T. An energy-independent house combining solar thermal and sky radiation energies. Solar Energy 1985;35±6:541±7. [9] Saitoh TS. An advanced solar house with solar thermal and sky radiation, Solar World Congress, Taejon, Korea, August 1997.

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