Evaluating management-induced soil salinization in golf courses in semi-arid landscapes

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1 Solid Erth, 6, , doi: /se Author(s) CC Attriution 3.0 License. Evluting mngement-induced soil sliniztion in golf courses in semi-rid lndscpes J. Young 1, T. K. Udeigwe 1, D. C. Weindorf 1, T. Kndkji 1, P. Gutm 1, nd M. A. Mhmoud 2 1 Deprtment of Plnt nd Soil Science, Texs Tech University, Luock, Texs, TX 79409, USA 2 Soil, Wter nd Environment Reserch Institute (SWERI), Agriculturl Reserch Center (ARC), Giz, Egypt Correspondence to: T. K. Udeigwe (theo.udeigwe@ttu.edu) Received: 2 Novemer 2014 Pulished in Solid Erth Discuss.: 13 Jnury 2015 Revised: 14 Mrch 2015 Accepted: 18 Mrch 2015 Pulished: 13 April 2015 Astrct. Site-specific informtion on lnd mngement prctices re often desired to mke etter ssessments of their environmentl impcts. A study ws conducted in Luock, Texs, in the Southern High Plins of the United Sttes, n re chrcterized y semi-rid climtic conditions, to (1) exmine the potentil mngement-induced ltertions in soil slinity indictors in golf course fcilities nd (2) develop predictive reltionships for more rpid soil slinity exmintion within these urn lndscpe soils using findings from portle X-ry fluorescence (PXRF) spectrometer. Soil smples were collected from mnged (well irrigted) nd non-mnged (non-irrigted) res of seven golf course fcilities t 0 10, 10 20, nd cm depths nd nlyzed for suite of chemicl properties. Among the extrctle ctions, sodium (N) ws significntly (p < 0.05) higher in the mnged zones of ll the golf fcilities. Soil electricl conductivity (EC), exchngele sodium percentge (ESP), nd sodium dsorption rtio (SAR), prmeters often used in chrcterizing soil slinity nd sodicity, were for the most prt significntly (p < 0.05) higher in the mnged res. Wter qulity reports collected over 22-yer period ( , ll yers not ville) indicted grdul increse in ph, EC, SAR, totl lklinity, nd extrctle ions, thus supporting the former findings. Findings from the PXRF suggested possile differences in chemicl species nd sources tht contriute to slinity etween the mnged nd non-mnged zones. PXRF-quntified Cl nd S, nd to lesser extent C, individully nd collectively explined % of the vriility ssocited with soil slinity t these fcilities. 1 Introduction Soil sliniztion is glol environmentl prolem tht hs gined lot of reserch ttention over the yers (Pitmn nd Läuchli, 2002; Mrtinez-Beltrn nd Mnzur, 2005; Herrero nd Pérez-Covet, 2005; Fn et l., 2012). Site-specific reserch on soil sliniztion is often needed ecuse generliztion of findings could e misleding. The Southern High Plins (SHP) of the USA, n re chrcterized y semi-rid climtic conditions (Peel et l., 2007), is noted for complex environmentl chllenges such s drought, dust, wind erosion, soil sliniztion, nd nutrient deficiency. Nevertheless, in this region lie very importnt economic cities, such s Luock, tht sustntilly contriute to US cotton production (USDA-NASS, 2014). Luock, locted in the northwestern prt of Texs, mong other environmentl chllenges is currently plgued y extreme wter scrcity ttriuted to low precipittion ( 30-yer verge nnul precipittion of pproximtely 470 mm) nd the declining locl quifer, the Oglll. Recent oservtions hve lso shown n incresing pollutnt concentrtion in well wters (Scnlon et l., 2005); therefore, the wter qulity of the quifer hs lso ecome n issue of concern. Thus, the intensifiction of griculturl nd municipl ctivities could hve sustntil impct on wter quntity nd soil qulity in this region. In most semi-rid nd rid regions of the world, the unvilility of sufficient rinfll is often ssocited with impired soil qulity s slts tend to ccumulte in the soil s result of limited leching (Priente, 2001). This could result in soil sliniztion, process in which slts uild up in the soil to potentilly toxic level (Pitmn nd Läuchli, 2002; Rengsmy, 2006). Such ltered chemicl properties Pulished y Copernicus Pulictions on ehlf of the Europen Geosciences Union.

2 394 J. Young et l.: Soil sliniztion in semi-rid golf courses could ffect the soil s hydrulic properties, susceptiility to erosion (Morgn, 2009), environmentl fte of soil pollutnts (Du et l., 2009), nd nutrient vilility to gronomic crops (Hvlin et l., 2005). Poor-qulity irrigtion wter could lso worsen such scenrios s more contminnts from the wter re continuously dded; typicl cse is the declining Oglll Aquifer, which hs een noted s potentil source of rsenic (As) nd nitrte (NO 3 ) to irrigted griculturl soils in the SHP (Hudk, 2000; Scnlon et l., 2005). Although common topic, there re still very limited scientific reference mterils on soil sliniztion in griculturl nd urn lndscpes in the study re. The first pproch to ddressing environmentl degrdtions resulting from contmintions is usully the identifiction of the mjor contriutors. Evidently, in this region, mngement (irrigtion)-induced soil sliniztion hs received less ttention, prticulrly within urn lndscpe fcilities such s golf courses, despite its severity. Golf courses re mjor users of irrigtion wter per unit re; typicl 18- hole golf fcility in the southwest region could use n verge of pproximtely 1200 mm yr 1 of wter (USGA, 2012) compred to 600 mm yr 1 for fully irrigted cotton field in the sme region (Snowden et l., 2013). Thus, in ssessing the potentil impct of impired wter qulity on soil nd other environmentl medi in ny setting, it is logicl to exmine the contriutions of mjor irrigtion wter users in tht given region of interest. With the incresing severity of environmentl degrdtion in the SHP region, it is of gret interest to ttempt to extend the pplictions of modern tools such s the portle X-ry fluorescence (PXRF) for more rpid investigtion of environmentl contmintion, prticulrly relting to soil sliniztion in golf course fcilities. This tool is gining importnce in the fields of soil nd environmentl sciences (Kilride et l., 2006; Jng, 2010; McWhirt et l., 2012; Grdner et l., 2013; Hu et l., 2014; Weindorf et l., 2014). Swnhrt et l. (2015) demonstrted the utility of pplying PXRF to soil slinity determintion. This pproch ws further refined y Ald et l. (2015), who coupled PXRF dt with visile ner-infrred diffuse reflectnce spectr s well s hyperspectrl stellite dt for improved mesurement of slinity in plys of western Texs, USA. This tool hs lso een extended to gypsum determintion in rid soils (Weindorf et l., 2013). This study serves s n ttempt to extend the ppliction of the PXRF to soil slinity exmintion in urn lndscpes of the semi-rid climtes. The min dvntge of this tool is its ility to quntify elements in n environmentl medium such s soil with miniml need for smple preprtion, therey sving time nd lor (Klnicky nd Singhvi, 2001) compred to the trditionl wet chemistry techniques. Likewise, other tools for field-scle slinity mesurement, such s electromgnetic induction, will not provide informtion on the chemicl species contriuting or controlling slinity. We hypothesize tht there will e significnt differences in key chemicl properties etween mnged nd non-mnged res of golf course fcilities. This ws deduced from the fct tht in ddition to the unique mngement prctices of golf course fcilities such s perennil monoculture, less soil pulveriztion, nd extended irrigtion window, the mnged zones re frequently irrigted nd would reflect the stte of the irrigtion wter qulity. Given the semi-rid climtic condition of the study re nd the chrcteristiclly lkline nture of the soils, these hypothesized differences could e more ovious in their slinity nd/or sodicity properties. Thus, the ojectives of this study were to (1) exmine the possile mngement-induced chnges in soil chemicl properties, prticulrly those significnt to sliniztion, within golf course fcilities in semi-rid climte, nd (2) develop predictive reltionships for more rpid soil slinity exmintion within these urn lndscpe soils using findings from PXRF spectrometer. 2 Mterils nd methods 2.1 Study site description This study ws conducted in Luock, Texs, USA. Luock lies within N nd W nd sits on n elevtion of 990 m ove se level (USGS, 2014). This re is chrcterized y semi-rid climtic conditions. Men wether prmeters recorded in 2013 when soil smpling ws conducted were 320 mm (for precipittion), 16.1 C (mient ir temperture), 53 % (reltive humidity), nd 29.3 kph (wind speed) (NOAA, 2015). Geologicl mterils re composed minly of Quternry eolin snd nd loess (Nordstrom nd Hott, 2004). To chieve our ojectives, seven golf course fcilities spred ll over the city were selected for this study. Ech fcility hs een under mngement for t lest 12 yers. Figure 1 shows the loctions of the selected fcilities, which re designted s A, B, C, D, E, F, nd G. Using we soil survey, soil types t the sites were rodly identified to elong to the Amrillo (fine-lomy, mixed, superctive, thermic Aridic Pleustlfs) nd Acuff series (fine-lomy, mixed, superctive, thermic Aridic Pleustolls). The verge golf course contins 10 to 12 h of irrigted firwys. All mnged firwys were plnted with common ermud grss (Cynodon dctylon (L.) Pers.) or hyrid ermud grss (Cynodon dctylon (L.) Pers. C. trnsvlensis Burtt-Dvy) while the non-mnged res were composed of poorly mnged grss cover, ntive vegettion, or re soil. 2.2 Soil smpling nd hndling The firwys, which re consistently irrigted, were designted s the mnged res, wheres djcent res of similr soil types tht re not irrigted or mnged were designted s the non-mnged res in ech fcility. In ech mnged nd non-mnged re, three core smples were rndomly collected using 30 cm long 6 cm wide (dimeter) core smpler nd then seprted into three depths of 0 10, 10 20, nd cm; then smples from sme depth Solid Erth, 6, ,

3 J. Young et l.: Soil sliniztion in semi-rid golf courses 395 Legend Figure 1. Mp showing the study re locted in Luock, Texs, USA, nd the loctions of the seven golf fcilities. The fcilities re designted Figure 1: smp A, B, showing C, D, E, the F, study ndre G. locted in Luock, Texs, USA nd the loctions of the seven golf fcilities. The fcilities re designted s A, B, C, D, E, F, nd G. were comined to get representtive smple for ech depth. Soil smpling ws conducted once during the months of June nd July in Smpling ws conducted only once since the im of the study ws to evlute the resultnt cumultive effect of mny yers (> 12 yers) of mngement prctices on soil chemicl properties of interest. Collected soil smples were then trnsported to the lortory, ir dried, ground, nd pssed through 2 mm sieve efore chrcteriztion. 2.3 Soil chrcteriztion Soil smples were nlyzed for suite of chemicl properties. Soil electricl conductivity (EC) nd ph were mesured in 1 : 2 solid (soil) to wter suspension (Rhodes, 1996). Totl cron (TC) nd totl nitrogen (TN) were nlyzed using TruSpec C/N nlyzer (LECO, St Joseph, MI, USA). Orgnic mtter (OM) ws determined using modified Wlkley nd Blck method (Nelson nd Sommers, 1996), using sodium (N) dichromte nd red on Gilford unit. Percent clcium cronte (CCO 3 ) ws determined y the tensimeter pproch (Soil Survey Stff, 1996), modifiction of the pressure clcimeter pproch (Loeppert nd Surez, 1996). Exchngele N, clcium (C), mgnesium (Mg), nd potssium (K) were mesured in mmonium cette extrct (Soil Survey Stff, 2009) using tomic sorption spectrometer (Spectr AA 220, Vrin, Plo Alto, Cliforni). Exchngele sodium percentge (ESP) ws clculted using mesured exchngele ction vlues (Sprks, 2003). Sodium dsorption rtio (SAR) ws determined using the estlished reltionship etween ESP nd SAR of sturted extrct developed y US Slinity Lortory (Richrds, 1954; Sprks, 2003). For the purpose nd scope of this study, wterextrctle chloride (Cl ) nd icronte (HCO 3 ) were mesured in 1 : 5 soil wter extrct nd Cl concentrtion determined y titrtion with M silver nitrte (AgNO 3 ) stndrd following the Mohr titrtion pproch (Soil Survey Stff, 1996), nd HCO 3 y titrtion with 0.01 M sulfuric cid (H 2 SO 4 ) (Soil Survey Stff, 1996). 2.4 PXRF scnning Collected smples were scnned using PXRF (DP-6000 Delt Premium, Olympus, Wlthm, MA, USA) equipped with Rh-X-ry tue which is operted t kv with integrted silicon drift detector (165 ev) (US Environmentl Protection Agency (USEPA), 2007). The tool ws operted in the soil mode to mesure suite of elements, mong which only Cl, K, S, nd C were selected for our purpose. Importntly, PXRF is not le to quntify N given its smll, stle electron cloud. Soil mode consists of three ems operting sequentilly, ech set to scn for 30 s for totl scn time of 90 s per smple. Clirtion of the instrument ws conducted efore smple nlysis using 316 lloy chip fitted to the perture. Ech soil smple ws scnned in triplicte nd the verge vlue reported. The dt on elementl concentrtion nd limit of detection (3 times the stndrd error) were otined nd compiled. 2.5 Wter qulity Wter qulity reports were otined from the vrious golf course fcilities, where ville. Since the fcilities pump from the sme groundwter source, the ville reports were enough to chieve the ojectives of this study. In summry, 12 yers ( , not ll yers were included) of dt were provided y one of the fcilities, 2 yers y nother ( ), nd 1 yer ech (2011 nd 2013) y the remining two fcilities. The dt sets roken down y wter sources were from well (12 yers of dt), retention pond (3 yers), nd recycled wstewter (1 yer). Wter qulity Solid Erth, 6, , 2015

4 396 J. Young et l.: Soil sliniztion in semi-rid golf courses Tle 1. Selected soil properties exmined t the mnged nd non-mnged res of the seven golf fcilities in Luock, Texs, USA (n = 3). Golf Mngement Irrigtion ph CCO 3 TC TN OM course source % A Mnged Well Non-mnged B Mnged Well Non-mnged C Mnged Well Non-mnged D Mnged Well Non-mnged E Mnged Well Non-mnged F Mnged Well & RW Non-mnged G Mnged Well & RP Non-mnged TC is totl cron; TN is totl nitrogen; OM is orgnic mtter; RW is recycled wstewter; RP is retention pond. Men vlues in column within golf course with the sme letter re not sttisticlly different (Fisher s LSD, α = 0.05). prmeters reported include EC, ph, SAR, N, Mg, K, C, HCO 3, S in SO 2 4, Cl, nd totl lklinity. 2.6 Sttisticl nlyses All sttisticl nlyses were performed using the Sttisticl Anlysis Softwre (SAS 9.3, SAS Institute, Cry, NC, USA). Differences mong mens were exmined using PROC GLM nd men comprison ws conducted using Fisher s lest significnce difference t α level of Single nd multiple liner regression nlyses using the stepwise technique were performed using the PROC REG procedure to estlish the reltionships mong the soil prmeters exmined. 3 Results nd discussions 3.1 Soil ph, CCO 3, nd OM Soil ph, %CCO 3, nd %OM etween the mnged nd nonmnged res of ech golf course fcility re summrized in Tle 1. Slinity prmeters will e discussed seprtely (see Sect. 3.2). The results indicted little differences in men ph etween mnged nd non-mnged res of ll the courses exmined (Tle 1). The differences in mens etween mnged nd non-mnged res t ech fcility rnged etween 0.1 nd 0.3 ph units nd there ws no consistent trend oserved etween the res. However, these differences were significnt (p < 0.05) in three (B, C, nd F) of the seven fcilities. Percent CCO 3 showed no definite trend with depth nd no consistent differences etween mnged nd nonmnged res (Tle 1). Although not significntly different, %CCO 3 ws higher in the non-mnged zones of four (D, E, F, nd G) of the seven courses exmined. Orgnic mtter tended to e higher in the mnged res s ws oserved in six (A, B, C, D, F, nd G) of the seven sites, lthough these were not sttisticlly significnt (Tle 1). The higher vlues oserved in the mnged zones could e ttriuted to more iomss (Hvlin et l., 2005) resulting from etter mngement. The exct sme trend oserved for soil OM ws lso reflected in the soil TC nd TN, which could e influenced y N fertilizer dditions nd N in irrigtion wter. Aprt from OM, TC, nd TN, there ws no consistent trend etween mnged nd non-mnged res t the exmined set of fcilities. The lck of significnt differences etween mnged nd non-mnged zones for most of the exmined soil properties reported here somewht indictes there re no mjor externl sources of these introduced through irrigtion or other mngement ctivities. 3.2 Extrctle ions nd slinity prmeters The differences in selected extrctle ions nd some slinity indictors etween mnged nd non-mnged sites t ech golf course re summrized in Tle 2. Among the extrctle ctions (C, K, Mg, nd N), N ws significntly higher (p < 0.05) in the mnged zone of ech fcility. This finding could somewht e ttriuted to the N contined in the irrigtion wter originting minly from groundwter sources (see Sect. 3.3), ecuse N is not typiclly Solid Erth, 6, ,

5 J. Young et l.: Soil sliniztion in semi-rid golf courses 397 Tle 2. A summry of extrctle ions nd soil slinity prmeters for the mnged nd non-mnged res of the seven golf fcilities studied in Luock, Texs, USA (n = 3). NH 4 -cette-extrctle Wter-extrctle Golf Mngement Irrigtion N + C +2 Mg +2 K + HCO 3 Cl EC ESP SAR course source mg kg 1 mg kg 1 ds m 1 % A Mnged Well Non-mnged nd B Mnged Well Non-mnged nd C Mnged Well Non-mnged nd D Mnged Well Non-mnged nd E Mnged Well Non-mnged F Mnged Well & RW Non-mnged G Mnged Well & RP Non-mnged nd EC is electricl conductivity; ESP is exchngele sodium percentge; RW is recycled wstewter; RP is retention pond; SAR is sodium dsorption rtio (estimted using clculted exchngele sodium rtio); nd is not detected. Men vlues in column within golf course with the sme letter re not sttisticlly different (Fisher s LSD, α = 0.05). dded through fertiliztion. Exchngele C ws higher in the non-mnged zones of six (A to F) of the seven fcilities, nd this finding ws significnt (p < 0.05) t three of the fcilities. This oserved difference could e ttriuted to the possile leching of C (possily in the form of sulftes nd chlorides) from the more frequently irrigted res. Extrctle Mg nd K were found to e higher in the irrigted res of six of the seven nd five of the seven exmined fcilities, respectively, with significnt differences (p < 0.05) oserved in some fcilities (Tle 2). The higher levels of these elements in the mnged res re likely due to their ddition to the soil from irrigtion wter (see Sect. 3.3) ecuse they re not typiclly dded through fertiliztion in this region. In generl, the chloride slts of C re more solule thn those of Mg nd K, while the sulfte slts of Mg nd K re more solule thn those of C, nd cronte slts re generlly insolule (Clugston nd Flemming, 2000). Thus, using their soluility chrcteristics, it could e inferred tht N, Mg, nd K in these soils could e more of cronte slts ecuse they will e less solule nd thus mildly leched y irrigtion wter. Conversely, C, which tended to e more susceptile to leching from these irrigted zones, could e predominntly in the form of chloride slts of C. The slight positive reltionship (R 2 = 0.65, p < 0.05) oserved etween N nd Cl could suggest the presence of chloride slts of N s well. The wter-extrctle nions exmined reveled tht HCO 3 nd Cl were mostly higher in the mnged res compred to the non-mnged res, some of which were significntly different (Tle 2). The only exception ws HCO 3 in fcility F. The higher levels of these nions in the mnged zones of these fcilities could e ttriuted to their ddition to the soil from irrigtion wter sources. The dominnt nions in the soil solution of most semi-rid slty soils re Cl, SO 2 4, HCO 3 (t ph vlues of ), nd some NO 3 (Dierickx, 2013). Thus, significnt increses in these ions could reflect shift towrd soil sliniztion. In this study, less emphsis ws plced on soil SO 2 4, NO 3, nd PO 3 4 concentrtions ecuse these re commonly dded through fertiliztion, nd thus possile contriution from irrigtion sources would not e esily quntified. The potentil contriution of the mngement prctices to slinity nd sodicity could e evidenced from the exmintion of the soil EC, ESP, nd SAR vlues. It is pprent tht the prctices t the fcilities nd possily irrigtion wter tended to increse the slinity nd sodicity properties of these soils. This is supported y the significntly higher EC, ESP, nd SAR vlues generlly oserved in the mnged res of these fcilities (Tle 2). A comprison ws mde mong depths to exmine the distriution of EC, ESP, nd SAR etween ll mnged nd non-mnged sites (Fig. 2). When ll the mnged zones were grouped nd compred ginst the non-mnged zone, t ech depth, the slinity prmeters Solid Erth, 6, , 2015

6 398 J. Young et l.: Soil sliniztion in semi-rid golf courses EC (ds/m) ESP SAR cm 0-10 cm 0-10 cm Mnged Non-mnged cm cm cm cm cm cm Figure 2: Differences in selected soil chemicl properties exmined within depths etween Figure 2. Differences in selected soil chemicl properties exmined Men within vlues within depths soil etween depth with the mnged sme letter nd re not non-mnged sttisticlly different zones (Fisher's of mnged nd non-mnged zones of ll seven golf courses exmined in Luock, Texs, USA (n = 7). LSD, llα seven = 0.05). golf courses exmined in Luock, Texs, USA (n = 7). EC, Electricl Conductivity; ESP, Exchngele Sodium Percentge; SAR, Sodium Adsorption Men vlues within soil depth with the sme letter re not st- Rtio. tisticlly different (Fisher s LSD, α = 0.05). EC is electricl conductivity; ESP is exchngele sodium percentge; SAR is sodium dsorption rtio. were significntly higher in the mnged zones, suggesting the effects were similr within ll the depths exmined. Besides irrigtion, this shift towrd sliniztion is further supported y the semi-rid condition of the study site, chrcterized y low rinfll nd less leching of the solule slts, leding to their uildup in the top soil. 3.3 Influence of locl quifer wter qulity The wter qulity reports otined from the fcilities re summrized in Tle 3. Interestingly, the concentrtion of ech prmeter exmined (with the exception of ph) ws on the verge pproximtely 2 times higher in the well wter compred to the retention pond, which is minly collection of runoff nd rinwter (Tle 3). These differences could e most likely ttriuted to the inherently low pollutnt concentrtion in rinwter, filtrtion of pollutnts s it flows over vegettion on its wy to the pond, nd further settling of pollutnts nd uptke y vegettion in the reservoir. The concentrtions of the exmined prmeters in the effluent treted wter were 2 11 times higher thn those of the well wter. Using the wter qulity informtion, pollutnt ddition to soil from the wter sources could e estimted. For instnce, using the verge vlues of contminnts in the well wter, pproximtely 5.60 g Cl, 7.60 g SO 2 4, 9.0 g HCO 3, nd 3.80 g N + will e dded to kg of the receiving soil over 10-yer period if field receives pproximtely 1200 mm yr 1 of irrigtion wter from well sources in this re. The limited rinfll nd thus miniml leching of slts in the semi-rid nd rid res could mke the sitution descried ove more relistic. The well wter qulity, which is etter representtion of tht of the locl quifer, ws further exmined. The ville dt were grouped into three sets , , ph SAR EC Totl Alklinity (mg/l) c Yer Yer Yer Yer Sodium (mg/l) Potssium (mg/l) Bicronte (mg/l) Chloride(mg/L) Yer Yer Yer Yer Figure 3: The oserved trend in selected wter qulity prmeters from Wter smples Figurewere 3. The otined oserved from well trend sources in selected utilized y wter golf course qulity in Luock, prmeters Texs, USA. For ech prmeter, dt were verged over (n = 9), (n = 6) nd from(n 1991 = 6), error to rs re Wter for the smples stndrd devitions. were otined Men vlues from within well sources prmeter with the utilized sme letter yre not golf sttisticlly course different in Luock, (Fisher's Texs, LSD, α USA. = 0.05). For ech prmeter, dt were verged over (n = 9), (n = 6), nd (n = 6); error rs re for the stndrd devitions. Men vlues within prmeter with the sme letter re not sttisticlly different (Fisher s LSD, α = 0.05). nd nd the verge vlues for ech prmeter in set were clculted. A striking feture oserved ws the grdul increse in ph, EC, SAR, totl lklinity, N, K, HCO 3, nd Cl over the yers (Fig. 3), suggesting tht the declining quifer (Terrel nd Johnson, 1999; Terrel et l., 2002) could e ssocited with n increse in contminnt concentrtion, prticulrly slts. Using the men vlues, the N + : C +2 rtio of pproximtely 2 : 1 in the well wter sources likely explins the higher SAR nd ESP in the mnged res tht re irrigted using wter from well sources. This rtio is higher thn those of recycled wstewter (1.5 : 1) nd ditch wter (1 : 1) reported y Qin nd Mechm (2005) tht still led to higher SAR in soils fter yers of irrigtion in Denver nd Fort Collins, Colordo. Thus, our findings sug- Solid Erth, 6, ,

7 J. Young et l.: Soil sliniztion in semi-rid golf courses 399 Tle 3. Typicl concentrtions rnges (men) of selected wter qulity indictors from well, retention pond, nd recycled wstewter sources summrized from four different golf courses in the city of Luock, Texs, USA, from 1991 to 2013 (numer of yers = 15, 4, nd 1 for well, retention pond, nd recycled wstewter sources, respectively). Prmeters Well Retention pond Recycled wter SAR (2.70) (1.92) 7.87 EC (ds m 1 ) (1.58) (0.74) 8.26 ph (7.78) (8.22) 6.41 Chloride (mg L 1 ) (205) (57.2) 2400 Sulfte (mg L 1 ) (277) (98.5) 1329 Bicronte (mg L 1) (330) (230) 615 Cronte (mg L 1 ) 16.8 (16.8) Potssium (mg L 1 ) (17.3) (10.2) 47.3 Sodium (mg L 1 ) (139) (68.6) 792 Clcium (mg L 1 ) (77.0) (33.0) 332 Mgnesium (mg L 1 ) (75.3) (35.5) 264 gest tht continuous irrigtion with well wter could increse the slt contents of the receiving soils overtime, sitution tht is lredy pprent in the mnged zones of the fcilities exmined in this study s discussed under Sect The wter qulity dt nd the oserved differences in slinity prmeters etween mnged (irrigted) nd non-mnged (non-irrigted) res estlish possile influence of the quifer wter qulity on soil qulity t these fcilities. 3.4 Appliction of PXRF to slinity prediction The PXRF-quntified C, Cl, K, nd S were individully nd collectively used to explin the vriility ssocited with slinity, pproximted using EC. The findings re presented in Tle 4. As evidenced from the R 2 vlues, when ll the sites were considered, pproximtely 70 % of the vriility ssocited with slinity ws explined y the Cl lone, 82 % y Cl nd S, nd 85 % y Cl, S, nd K. The findings here suggest the likely contriutions of slts of Cl nd SO 2 4 to soil slinity within these fcilities. When studied individully, the strengths of these reltionships were notly higher within the mnged re compred to the non-mnged re (Tle 4) s evidenced from R 2 verge of 0.72 (mnged) vs (non-mnged) for ll the reltionships exmined. The stronger reltionships oserved within the mnged group support prt of our hypothesis tht slinity (EC) is influenced y nthropogenic sources; thus, the more the input of these ction nd nion-forming elements through irrigtion, fertiliztion, etc., the higher the slinity. The weker reltionships oserved within the non-mnged group suggest limited influence of the nthropogenic sources of the elements (prticulrly Cl nd S), further suggesting tht slinity could e controlled y other prmeters tht were not ccounted for y the PXRF. From this informtion, it cn e inferred tht the chemistry of slinity, i.e., the elementl species contriuting to it, could e different within the mnged nd the non-mnged groups. This is n importnt piece of informtion tht ws rpidly otined using the PXRF. Overll, the reltionships developed when ll dt points (mnged nd non-mnged) were collectively considered suggest tht the PXRF could e used for rpid prediction nd exmintion of chemistry of slinity in the semi-rid urn soils, n ppliction tht could e extended to other semi-rid regions. However, it is importnt to note tht the cpility of this tool is still limited since the contriutions of some elements such s N nd nions such s HCO 3 nd CO 2 3 cnnot e scertined yet. 4 Conclusions The impcts of mngement prctices on environmentl qulity could vry with climte nd thus site-specific investigtions re often desired, ecuse extending findings from one prctice nd loction to others could e misleding. Thus, this study serves s n initil proe into the potentil mngement-induced chnges in soil chemicl properties with focus on slinity in golf courses in Luock, Texs, locted in the SHP of the USA. This is n re chrcterized y semi-rid climtic conditions, typified y drought, wind erosion, nd potentil for soil sliniztion. Evlution of soil chemicl properties of mnged (irrigted) nd non-mnged (non-irrigted) res t seven different golf course fcilities nd informtion on well wter qulity reveled possile differences in soil properties. The mjor findings re summrized s follows: (1) mong the exchngele ctions, N ws significntly higher in ll the mnged nd well-irrigted zones of ll the seven golf courses, suggesting the ddition of N slts (possily in the forms of crontes nd chlorides) to irrigted soils from irrigtion wter sources. (2) Irrigtion tended to increse the slinity nd sodicity properties of the soils s evidenced from the significntly higher Soil EC, ESP, nd SAR oserved in mjority of the mnged res compred to the non-mnged res. This finding ws supported y the wter qulity dt of the locl quifer, which showed Solid Erth, 6, , 2015

8 400 J. Young et l.: Soil sliniztion in semi-rid golf courses Tle 4. Regression eqution nd coefficient of determintion for the reltionships etween electricl conductivity (EC) nd the selected PXRF-quntified elements within mnged nd non-mnged fcilities of the golf courses in Luock, Texs, USA (n = 42). All fcilities (n = 42) Prmeter (s) Eqution R 2 Cl EC = Cl c S EC = S c C EC = C K EC = K Cl + S EC = Cl S c Cl + K EC = Cl K c Cl + C EC = Cl C c Cl + S + K EC = Cl S K c Cl + S + C EC = Cl S C c Cl + C + K EC = Cl C K c Mnged (n = 21) Prmeter (s) Eqution R 2 Cl EC = Cl c S EC = S C EC = C K EC = K Cl + S EC = Cl S c Cl + K EC = Cl K c Cl + C EC = Cl C c Cl + S + K EC = Cl S K c Cl + S + C EC = Cl S C c Cl + C + K EC = Cl C K c Non-mnged (n = 21) Prmeter (s) Eqution R 2 Cl EC = Cl S EC = S C EC = C K EC = K Cl + S EC = Cl S Cl + K EC = Cl K Cl + C EC = Cl C Cl + S + K EC = Cl S K Cl + S + C EC = Cl S C Cl + C + K EC = Cl C K Significnt t 0.05 proility level; Significnt t 0.01 proility level; c Significnt t proility level; EC in ds m 1 ; Cl, S, C, nd K in mg kg 1. n increse in ph, EC, SAR, totl lklinity, nd extrctle ions over the yers. (3) PXRF-quntified Cl nd S, nd to lesser extent C, individully nd collectively explined most of the vriility ssocited with slinity within the soils of these fcilities. The strengths of the reltionships were generlly higher in the mnged re. Although in the SHP nd other semi-rid nd rid regions the emphsis is more on wter quntity, it is importnt to point out tht slt uildup cn ffect wter qulity y ltering the hydrologicl properties of soils such s hydrulic conductivity, infiltrtion, permeility, wter holding cpcity, nd thus wter vilility to crops. This study ws n initil investigtion into n oserved environmentl issue nd findings will support future reserch effort in the suject re. Solid Erth, 6, ,

9 J. Young et l.: Soil sliniztion in semi-rid golf courses 401 Author contriutions. J. Young nd T. K. Udeigwe plnned nd implemented the study. T. Kndkji nd P. Gutm ssisted in field nd lortory ctivities. M. A. Mhmoud suggested ides nd ssisted in vrious spects of the project s needed. D. C. Weindorf provided ssistnce with the portle X-ry fluorescence spectrometer. Acknowledgements. We thnk the golf course superintendents t the locl courses who llowed us to collect soil smples from their courses to complete this work. Edited y: P. Pereir References Ald, A. A. A., Weindorf, D. C., Chkrorty, S., Shrm, A., nd Li, B.: Comintion of proximl nd remote sensing methods for rpid soil slinity quntifiction, Geoderm, , 34 46, Clugston, M. nd Flemming, R.: Advnced Chemistry, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, Dierickx, W.: The slinity nd lklinity sttus of rid nd semirid lnds, Lnd Use, Lnd Cover nd Soil Sciences, 5, , Du Ling, G., Rinklee, J., Vndecsteele, B., Meers, E., nd Tck, F. M. G.: Trce metl ehviour in esturine nd riverine floodplin soils nd sediments: review, Sci. Totl Environ., 407, , Fn, X., Pedroli, B., Liu, G., Liu, Q., Liu, H., nd Shu, L.: Soil slinity development in the yellow river delt in reltion to groundwter dynmics, Lnd Degrd. Dev., 23, , Grdner, D., Weindorf, D. C., nd Flynn, M.: Presence of chromium, copper, nd rsenic in schoolyrd soils, Soil Horizons, 54, 1 5, doi: /sh , Hvlin, J. L., Beton. J. D., Tisdle, S. L., nd Nelson, W. L.: Soil fertility nd fertilizers: n introduction to nutrient mngement, Vol. 515, Person Prentice Hll, Upper Sddle River, NJ, USA, Herrero, J. nd Pérez-Covet, O.: Soil slinity chnges over 24 yers in Mediterrnen irrigted district, Geoderm, 125, , Hu, W., Hung. B., Weindorf, D. C., nd Chen, Y.: Metls nlysis of griculturl soils vi portle X-ry fluorescence spectrometry, B. Environ. Contm. Tox., 92, , Hudk, P. F.: Distriution nd sources of rsenic in the southern high plins quifer, TX, USA, J. Environ. Sci. Hel. A, 35, , Jng, M.: Appliction of portle X-ry fluorescence (pxrf) for hevy metl nlysis of soils in crop fields ner ndoned mine sites, Environ. Geochem. Hlth., 32, , Klnicky, D. J. nd Singhvi, R.: Field portle XRF nlysis of environmentl smples, J. Hzrd. Mter., 83, , 2001 Kilride, C., Poole, J. nd Hutchings, T. R.: A comprison of Cu, P, As, Cd, Zn, Fe, Ni nd Mn determined y cid extrction/icp OES nd ex situ field portle X-ry fluorescence nlyses, Environ. Pollut, 143, 16 23, Loeppert, R. H. nd Surez, D. L.: Cronte nd gypsum, in: Methods of Soil Anlysis, Prt 3, Chemicl Methods, edited y: Brtels, J. M. nd Bighm, J. M., Soil Science Society of Americ, Inc., Mdison, USA, SSSA Book Series 5, , Mrtinez-Beltrn, J. nd Mnzur, C. L.: Overview of slinity prolems in the world nd FAO strtegies to ddress the prolem, in: Proceedings of the interntionl slinity forum, Riverside, CA, USA, , McWhirt, A., Weindorf, D. C., nd Zhu, Y.: Rpid nlysis of elementl concentrtions in compost vi portle X-ry fluorescence spectrometry, Compost Sci. Util., 20, , Morgn, R. P. C.: Soil Erosion nd Conservtion, Blckwell Pulishing, Oxford, UK, Nelson, D. W. nd Sommers, L. E.: Totl cron, orgnic cron, nd orgnic mtter, in: Methods of Soil Anlysis, Prt 3, Chemicl Methods, edited y: Sprks D. L., Soil Science Society of Americ Book Ser. 5, SSSA nd ASA, Mdison, WI, USA, , NOAA: NOAA Online Wether Dt (Luock Are), ville t: lst ccess: 30 Mrch Nordstrom, K. F. nd Hott, S.: Wind erosion from croplnd in the USA: review of prolems, solutions nd prospects, Geoderm, 121, , Priente, S.: Solule slts dynmics in the soil under different climtic conditions, Cten, 43, , Peel, M. C., Finlyson, B. L., nd McMhon, T. A.: Updted world mp of the Köppen-Geiger climte clssifiction, Hydrol. Erth Syst. Sci., 11, , doi: /hess , Pitmn, M. G. nd Läuchli, A.: Glol impct of slinity nd griculturl ecosystems, in: Slinity: Environment- Plnts-Molecules, Springer, the Netherlnds, Prt A, 3 20, doi: / _1, Qin, Y. L. nd Mechm, B.: Long-term effects of recycled wstewter irrigtion on soil chemicl properties on golf course firwys, Agron. J., 97, , Rengsmy, P.: World sliniztion with emphsis on Austrli, J. Exp. Bot., 57, , Rhodes, J. D.: Slinity: electricl conductivity nd totl dissolved solids, in: Methods of Soil Anlysis, III, Chemicl Methods, edited y: Sprks, D. L., SSSA, Mdison, WI, USA, , Richrds, L. A.: Dignosis nd Improvement of Sline nd Sodic Soils, USDA Agric. Hnd. 60, USDA, Wshington, DC, USA, Scnlon, B. R., Nicot, J. P., Reedy, R. C., Tchovsky, J. A., Nnce, S. H., Smyth, R. C., Keese, K., Ashurn, R. E., nd Christin, L.: Evlution of rsenic contmintion in Texs, The Univ. of Texs t Austin, Bureu of Economic Geology, finl report prepred for Texs Commission on Environmentl Qulity, under umrell contrct no nd work order no. UT , 177, 167 pp., Snowden, C., Ritchie, G., Cve, J., Keeling, W., nd Rjn, N.: Multiple irrigtion levels ffect oll distriution, yield, nd fier micronire in cotton, Agron. J., 105, , Soil Survey Stff: Chemicl nlyses, clcium cronte (4E) HCl tretment (4E1) mnometer, electronic (4E1) < 20mm sis (4E), Solid Erth, 6, , 2015

10 402 J. Young et l.: Soil sliniztion in semi-rid golf courses in: Soil Survey Lortory Mnul, USDA-NRCS SSRI #42, Version 4.0, , Soil Survey Stff: Soil Survey Field nd Lortory Methods Mnul, Soil Survey Investigtions Report No. 51, Version, edited y: Burt, R., US Deprtment of Agriculture, Nturl Resources Conservtion Service, Sprks, D. L.: Environmentl Soil Chemistry, Acdemic Press, Sn Diego, CA, USA, Swnhrt, S., Weindorf, D. C., Chkrorty, S., Bkr, N., Zhu, Y., Nelson, C., Shook, K., nd Acree. A.: Mesuring soil slinity vi portle X-ry fluorescence spectrometry, Soil Sci., 179, , Terrell, B. L. nd Johnson, P. N.: Economic impct of the depletion of the Oglll Aquifer: cse study of the southern high plins of Texs, in: Americn Agriculturl Economics Assocition nnul meeting, Nshville, TN, USA, 8 11 August Terrell, B. L., Johnson. P. N., nd Segrr, E.: Oglll Aquifer depletion: economic impct on the Texs high plins, Wter Policy, 4, 33 46, US Environmentl Protection Agency: Method 6200: Field Portle X-Ry Fluorescence Spectrometry for the Determintion of Elementl Concentrtions in Soil nd Sediment, USEPA, USDA-NASS: Cotton ginning 2013 summry, ville t: CottGinnSu pdf (lst ccess: 30 Mrch 2015), USGA: How Much Wter Does Golf Use nd Where Does It Come From?, ville t: USGAHome/Course_Cre/Golf_nd_the_Environment/Wter/ %20Lymn,%20Greg%20-%20How%20Much% 20Wter%20Does%20Golf%20Use.pdf (lst ccess: 30 Mrch 2015), USGS: Ntionl Elevtion Dtset, ville t: gov/, (lst ccess: 30 Mrch 2015), Weindorf, D. C., Zhu, Y., Chkrorty, S., Bkr, N., nd Hung, B.: Use of portle X-ry fluorescence spectrometry for environmentl qulity ssessment of peri-urn griculture, Environ. Monit. Assess., 184, , Weindorf, D. C., Herrero, J., Cstñed, C., Bkr, N., nd Swnhrt, S.: Direct soil gypsum quntifiction vi portle X-ry fluorescence spectrometry, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 77, , Weindorf, D. C., Bkr, N., nd Zhu, Y.: Advnces in portle X-ry fluorescence (PXRF) for environmentl, pedologicl, nd gronomic pplictions, Adv. Agron., 128, 1 45, Solid Erth, 6, ,

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