Name: Section: Biology 101L Laboratory 8: Ecology and Food Webs (Exercise and homework adapted from Bio Food webs of Western Oregon University)
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1 Biology 101L Laboratory 8: Ecology and Food Webs (Exercise and homework adapted from Bio Food webs of Western Oregon University) Objectives (1) You will explore some of the key trophic relationships of forest organisms with each other. (2) You will use your knowledge of these trophic relationships to create a food web that diagrams energy flow through this ecosystem. (3) You will compare the way energy vs. materials move through ecosystems. (4) You will learn the concept of an energy pyramid. I. Introduction Ecology has been defined variously as the study of the interrelationships of organisms with their environment and each other, as the economy of nature, and as the biology of ecosystems. In its broadest sense ecology is concerned with the flow of energy and the recycling of nutrients within or between levels of organization. The physical conditions under which organisms exist include temperature, ph, and availability of food and water. Equally important to the survival of the individual are the other organisms in the environment. Ecologists study the effects of predators, competitors, and parasites. During this lab, we will focus on the community level of organization, examining the biological components of several distinct ecosystems. The field of ecology that deals with the interactions among populations of species that inhabit the same ecosystem is termed community ecology. Perhaps the most dramatic of the interactions among different species in a community is the who eats whom relationship. Ecologists study those interactions under the broad umbrella of food webs. Establishing the feeding habits of individual species, and the patterns in the food web of an area, helps understand the structure of the community. Components of ecosystems Ecosystems are defined as the biological community and all of the abiotic factors with which they interact. The biological community can be described at several different levels of organization. A population of organisms is composed of a group of individuals of the same species. A community consists of all the populations of all the species occupying a given area at a given time. Each population plays a different role within its community. Ecosystems have four basic components: 1. The abiotic environment 2. Producers 3. Consumers 4. Decomposers The abiotic environment includes all nonliving chemical and physical components, which affect ecosystems. Abiotic components include light, temperature, water and soil, which are usually influenced by climate and weather. All of these abiotic components affect distribution and activities of both terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Producers are autotrophic ( self-feeding ) meaning they utilize energy from the sun and nutrients from the abiotic environment (carbon dioxide from the air or water, other nutrients from the soil or water) to perform photosynthesis and grow. Producers are Biology 101L Spring 2018 Ecology and Food Webs 1
2 generally green plants (those with chlorophyll). Consumers are heterotrophic ( otherfeeding ) organisms that feed on other organisms. They include herbivores (plant eaters or primary consumers), carnivores (meat eaters or secondary consumers), and parasites (that absorb nutrients from the body fluids of living hosts). An animal that feeds on carcasses of other animals or other organic refuse is termed a scavenger. Decomposers and Detritivores utilize energy from wastes or dead organisms, and so complete the cycle by returning nutrients to the soil or water, and carbon dioxide to the air and water. Trophic levels Trophic levels are steps in a nutritive series, or food chain, of an ecosystem. The organisms of a chain are classified into these levels on the basis of their feeding behavior. All biological communities have a basic structure of interaction that forms a trophic pyramid. The trophic pyramid is made up of trophic levels, and food energy is passed from one level to the next along the food chain. The base of the pyramid is composed of autotrophs ( self-feeders ), the primary producers of the ecosystem. They do not obtain energy and nutrients by eating other organisms. Instead, they harness solar energy by photosynthesis (photoautotrophs) or, more rarely, chemical energy by oxidation (chemoautotrophs) to make organic substances from inorganic ones. All other organisms in the ecosystem are consumers (i.e., heterotrophs, fed by others ), which either directly or indirectly depend on the producers for food energy. (Figure 1) For all practical purposes, the sun is the major source of energy for all living organisms on the planet. In order for organisms to live and thrive, that sun energy must be converted into a form that can be used. Plants and other autotrophs carry out this function and without autotrophs, life on earth would be very limited. Plants are able to convert sun energy into chemical energy in the form of carbon molecules that can be consumed by heterotrophs as food. Some heterotrophs eat other heterotrophs and so energy is passed up the chain. Organisms cannot use all of the calories they consume as food. Ten percent of calories are stored for future use in the form of carbohydrates, protein and fat. The remaining 90% of calories are lost to metabolic processes such as staying warm and digesting food, and as heat. Figure 1. An idealized pyramid of net production through an ecosystem. The higher the organism is on the trophic pyramid, the less energy is available to it; herbivores and detritivores (primary consumers) have less available energy than plants, and the carnivores that feed on herbivores and detritivores (secondary consumers) and those that eat other carnivores (tertiary consumers) have the least amount of available energy. In other words, the energy transfer between trophic levels is typically only 10%. Biology 101L Spring 2018 Ecology and Food Webs 2
3 Because all species are specialized in their diets, each trophic pyramid is made up of a series of interconnected feeding relationships called food chains. Most food chains consist of three or four trophic levels. A typical sequence may be plant, herbivore, carnivore, top carnivore; another sequence is plant, herbivore, parasite of the herbivore, and parasite of the parasite. Many herbivores, detritivores, carnivores, and parasites, however, eat more than one species, and a large number of animal species eat different foods at different stages of their life histories. In addition, many species eat both plants and animals and therefore feed at more than one trophic level. Consequently, food chains combine into highly complex food webs. Even a simplified food web can show a complicated network of trophic relationships (Figure 2). Even a fully constructed food web, however, can provide only a superficial and static view of the structure of biological communities. Not all the relationships between species are of equal importance in the dynamics and evolution of populations and the organization of communities. Food webs include both strong and weak interactions between species and these differences in interaction strength influence the organization of communities. Some species, called keystone species, have a disproportionately large effect on the communities in which they occur. They help to maintain local diversity within a community either by controlling populations of species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of species. Food webs and Life Cycles Many organisms have complex life histories, or, life cycles. For example, most mammals give birth to live young that look like miniatures of the adult. Juveniles grow larger in size until they reach maturity, but do not substantially change their outward form. A baby bear grows into an adult bear. However, many other organisms go through multiple stages from egg to adult. For example, butterflies start as eggs, morph into larvae (e.g., caterpillars), then pupate, and finally emerge as adult butterflies in the form that we know them. Life histories are important to consider when we model food webs, because different stages may require different types of food, and different stages may be eaten by different predators. For example, bear cubs nurse when small and gradually eat the same food as adult bears. They need the protection of their mother to keep them safe from predators such as wolves or cougars, but adult bears have virtually no predators. Butterflies, on the other hand, are quite different. Caterpillars often eat sap in leaves of trees, and many butterflies drink nectar from flowers. Moreover, both caterpillars and adult butterflies are susceptible to predation by a wide range of organisms including other insects, frogs, snakes and mice. Consequently, life history stages add further complexity to food webs. The greater the number of stages in the life cycle, the more opportunities there are for the different stages to eat different foods and for different predators to specialize on a particular stage. An organism may form part of one trophic level as a juvenile and a different trophic level as an adult. This is especially relevant in aquatic and marine ecosystems (Fig. 2). For example, many fish start out in their larval form as primary consumers, eating phytoplankton, or as secondary consumers, eating other zooplankton. When they reach maturity, these fish may feed primarily on other fish and be secondary or tertiary consumers. Biology 101L Spring 2018 Ecology and Food Webs 3
4 have more than one prey. Their relationships are also influenced by other environmental factors. Biodiversity (here defined as the degree of variation of life forms or species within a given ecosystem) is a major contributor to the health and stability of ecosystems. When an organism can exploit a wide range of resources, a decrease in biodiversity is less likely to have an impact. However, for an organism, which can only exploit a limited range of resources, a decrease in biodiversity is more likely to have a strong effect. Figure 2. Generalized aquatic food web. Biodiversity Each species in an ecosystem is affected by the other species in that ecosystem. There are very few single prey - single predator relationships. Most prey are consumed by more than one predator, and most predators Reduction of habitat, hunting and fishing of some species to extinction or nearextinction, introduction of alien and invasive species and eradication of insects and pollution tend to tip the balance of biodiversity. Similarly, in-situ conservation areas need to be carefully designed to maintain a diverse and stable environment for the extinct species to thrive. Trophic interactions can involve more than the two players "predator" and "prey". When more than two trophic levels are involved, we talk of "multi-trophic interactions" or "multitrophic level interactions. II. In-Class Activity Food Web of a Hawaiian Forest. The birds you see every day on campus are all introduced. Why do you think there are no native birds around town? Hawaii was once famous for its native birds, especially the Hawaiian honeycreepers. However, due to human influences and the introduction of many plants and other organisms from around the world, many bird native species have become extinct or retreated to the few, remaining areas of native forest. Biology 101L Spring 2018 Ecology and Food Webs 4
5 To learn more about the amazing Hawaiian birds and other native or non-native Hawaiian organisms, we will use them as an example for an ecology and food web exercise in this week s lab. 1. Using the guidebooks and laminated cards on your table, work as a group to make a list of 16 organisms that live in a Hawaiian forest today. On this list, you need to include: 5 plants (at least 2 native) 5 invertebrates (at least 2 native) 5 vertebrates (at least 2 native) 1 decomposer 2. Determine the major food resources for each organism on your list, and enter this in the appropriate column of your data sheet. a. Use the available guides and the lists provided, as well as your own ideas, to determine whether your organism is a primary producer or a consumer. If it is a consumer, use the literature available to determine what it eats. You might also find information on what eats your particular organism. You can then include its predator on your list (if it isn't there already) and note what it eats. b. Enter the information into the "major food resources" column of your data sheet. c. Which trophic level does each organism belong to? 3. Construct a food web of the Hawaiian forest ecosystem on the large newsprint provided. a. You will include all the organisms on your list as well as any that need to be added based on what you learned about major food resources and predators. b. You will organize organisms based on their trophic level. A simplified view of the Antarctic marine food web is provided as an example. 1. Notice how primary producers are located at the bottom of the food web, consistent with their trophic level, while the top predators are at the top. This arrangement makes it easy to see how energy flows through the ecosystem. 2. Note that some consumers feed at more than one trophic level. 3. Note that decomposers appear at all levels except the lowest (i.e. they are not primary producers) depending upon what they decompose. For example, a fungus decomposing a dead tree is at the same level as the primary consumers, whereas a bacterium decomposing a bison is a secondary consumer. c. You will draw arrows to indicate the flow of energy through this ecosystem. Make sure that the arrows point from the energy source to where the energy is going. Energy cannot be recycled, so no arrows go from primary consumers or predators back to primary producers! Biology 101L Spring 2018 Ecology and Food Webs 5
6 Group members: Food web datasheet: Common name Major food types Producer/ Consumer? Trophic level Biology 101L Spring 2018 Ecology and Food Webs 6
7 Biology 101L Spring 2018 Ecology and Food Webs 7
8 III. Homework (40 pts.) 1. To turn in individually Answers to discussion questions below. If you run out of room, use the back of this paper, or another sheet of paper to answer the questions. 2. To turn in as a group A. Completed data sheet with food resources (3 pts.) B. Your food web (3 pts.) Discussion Questions (34 pts.) 1. a) Review the 10% rule in the introduction. Draw an energy pyramid showing the four different trophic levels and label each level with the appropriate name. Finally, calculate the maximum amount of energy available at each level, if the primary producers contain 50,000 calories. (2 pts) b) If it takes 10,000 cal/day to sustain one cow, how many calories at the primary producer level are needed to transfer 10,000 calories to the cow? (1 pt) 2. The organisms at the top of a food web (select one option): (1 pt) A) accumulate all of the energy that existed in the consumed organisms that were lower in the food web. B) have less available energy than trophic levels below it. C) have the same amount of accumulated energy as each of the trophic levels below it. D) have available to it all of the energy of the food web. Please explain your answer. (2 pts) Biology 101L Spring 2018 Ecology and Food Webs 8
9 3. Consider the three diagrams below. They represent three situations in which 100 kg of green plants serve as the original source of food for each of the food chains. In situation II, for example, cattle eat 100 kg of green plants and then people eat the beef that is produced by the cattle, as a result of having eaten the plants. (1 pt) In which of the three situations is the most energy available to people? (Select one) A. I B. II C. III D. Situations I and II will roughly tie for the most energy. E. The same amount of energy will be available to people in all three situations. Please explain your answer. (2 pts) 4. Consider the statement, "Human impact on the environment would be reduced if all people were vegetarians." Does our understanding of energy flow through ecosystems support or contradict this idea? Explain. HINT: Apply the energy pyramid to this question e.g. how many total calories does it take to obtain 2500 calories from a one cow compared to eating those 2500 calories directly from the bottom trophic level? (3 pts) Biology 101L Spring 2018 Ecology and Food Webs 9
10 5. How does competition among organisms affect the amount of energy available to a particular group of organisms? For example, in the Antarctic food web (figure 2), how does the presence of other zooplankton affect the food available to krill? (2 pts) 6. What is the scientific definition of an organic compound (i.e., an organic molecule)? (1 pt) How does the scientific definition differ from the general publics concept of "organic"? (1 pt) 7. What is the scientific definition of inorganic compound (i.e., an inorganic element or molecule)? (1 pt) List at least 3 examples of inorganic elements or molecules that cycle through ecosystems. (HINT: You may find some clues in the introduction.) (3 pts) In your food web, you drew arrows to show one-way flow of energy through the ecosystem. Unlike energy, materials (i.e., organic and inorganic molecules) are recycled throughout an ecosystem and are reused. a) Which type of organism is able to directly convert energy and use inorganic molecules to synthesize biomass (i.e., produce organic molecules)? (1 pt) List three examples from the Hawaiian forest and/or Antarctic food web. (3 pts) Type: Biology 101L Spring 2018 Ecology and Food Webs 10
11 b) Which type of organism in the food web feeds on the organisms that are able to directly convert energy and use inorganic molecules to synthesize biomass? (1 pt) Give three examples from the Hawaiian forest and/or Antarctic food web. (3 pts) Type: c) Which type of organism breaks down and recycles organic molecules back into their inorganic forms? (1 pt) Provide two examples. (2 pts) Type: If you were given a choice, in the voting booth, to fund research on Humpback and Minke whales or to fund research on krill, which would you choose and why? In formulating your answer, consider the roles of each of these organisms in the food web as well as any other issues important to you. (You will be graded on the basis of your understanding of the ecosystem, rather than on the "correctness" of your vote.) (3 pts) Biology 101L Spring 2018 Ecology and Food Webs 11
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