LUZON BASIN, PHILIPPINES. by Jose Alfonso Galvez

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1 EVALUATION OF THE WATER RESOURCES OF THE CENTRAL LUZON BASIN, PHILIPPINES by Jose Alfonso Galvez A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY WITH A MAJOR IN WATER RESOURCES ADMINISTRATION In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 1976

2 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE I hereby recommend that this dissertation prepared under my direction by entitled Jose Alfonso Galvez Evaluation of the Water Resources of the Central Luzon Basin, Philippines be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy AN101-- kmode,-- 10 /9 76 Date Dissertation,Director- Dissertation CO-DireCtor Date As members of the Final Examination Committee, we certify that we have read this dissertation and agree that it may be presented for final defense. 1'910 7 tf-/ Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent on the candidate's adequate performance and defense thereof at the final oral examination.

3 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author. SIGNED:

4 Dedicated to Thelma, Mark, and Jan

5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to extend his heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Simon Lice whose guidance, suggestions, and assistance were generously given during the course of this work. The writer is greatly indebted to Prof. Theodore G. Roefs who suggested the major idea in this study and showed major interest in its completion. To the members of his degree committee, Dr. Michael D. Bradley, Dr. John W. Harshbarger, Dr. William G. Matlock, and Dr. Delmar D. Fangmeier, who showed concern and reviewed the final draft, the author expresses his appreciation and gratitude. The writer conveys his appreciation and thanks to Prof. Alfredo L. Juinio, the National Irrigation Administration (NIA) Administrator, who made the NIA facilities available for this study. The office space provided by the National Water Resources Council facilitated the work. The unselfish assistance of the various divisions of the Upper Pampanga River Project is acknowledged with gratitude. Special thanks are due the Agricultural Development Division and Project Development Division for their major contributions in the collection of data and drafting. The National Irrigation Administration, the Bureau of Public Works, the National Power Corporation, the National Water Resources Council, the National Pollution Control Commission, the Bureau of Mines, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Seismological Administration, and the National Census and Statistics Office are among the government iv

6 agencies which provided the data base and major Philippine references for this work. To his colleagues and co-fellows in the Civil Decision Quantification Program, Lino Aldovino, Danny Franco, Leony Liongson, and Pat Ongkingco, who worked with enthusiasm with the author as a team, the writer wishes to convey his appreciation and admiration. The study was made possible by the computer programming skill of Mr. Liongson, who developed the computer program for the statistical analysis and augmentation procedures. To him, the author is greatly indebted. The program which culminated in the completion of this study was financially supported by the Ford Foundation through The University of Arizona. Additional support was extended by the National Irrigation Administration during the final year. The author expresses his profound gratitude to these agencies. To other government organizations and numerous friends who, in one way or another, contributed to the completion of this work, the author conveys his appreciation and thanks.

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ABSTRACT xv xviii 1. INTRODUCTION Importance of the Work Scope and Objectives of the Work 3 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA Location and Extent Physiography Geology Description of Geologic Units Climate Soils and Land Use Population Water Resources Development Hydroelectric Power Irrigation The Upper Pampanga River Project (UPRP) Water Supply and Sewerage Flood Control and Drainage Flood Control Projects REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK Central Luzon Water Resources 3.2 Augmentation of Hydrologic Data THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION AND METHODOLOGY: STREAMTLOW DATA AUGMENTATION Introduction Augmentation Procedures Percent Deviation Method Matalas-Jacobs Method YOR Method HEC-4 Method 63 vi

8 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued Page 5. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION AND METHODOLOGY: HYDROLOGIC BUDGET Water Balance Rainfall Runoff Evapotranspiration Empirical Method Mass Transfer Methods Energy Budget Method Penman's Equation Other Methods of Estimating ET Groundwater Equations of Groundwater Flow Well Hydraulics Groundwater Flow Estimation of Recharge Recharge Estimation by the Meyboom Method DATA Data Collection Rainfall and Streamflow Data Other Climatological Data Data Preparation Rainfall Data Streamflow Data COMPARISON OF STREAMFLOW AUGMENTATION METHODS Description of Gaging Stations Comparison Criteria Annual Flows Monthly Flows Scoring System Results and Discussion Annual Flows Double Mass Analysis Mean Annual Flows Annual Deviations Standard Deviations Monthly Flows Annual Hydrographs Monthly Means Standard Deviations 166

9 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued Page 7.5 Summary and Findings Application of the Augmentation Method Consistency of Augmented Data THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET Period of Analysis Description of Gaging Stations Rainfall Streamflow Groundwater Evaporation The Water Budget Recharge Estimation Summary and Findings THE BASIN WATER RESOURCES Surface Water Rainfall Streamflow Surface Storage Surface Water Quality Linkage of Surface and Sub-Surface Water Groundwater Chemical Quality of Groundwater Groundwater Potential Productivity Water Requirement in the Basin SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 245 APPENDIX A: HYDROGEOLOGY OF CENTRAL LUZON BASIN, PHILIPPINES 254 APPENDIX B: MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL OF CENTRAL LUZON BASIN, PHILIPPINES 256 APPENDIX C: MONTHLY PERCENTAGE OF DAYTIME HOURS (p) OF THE YEAR FOR LATITUDES 0 TO 65 NORTH OF THE EQUATOR 258 APPENDIX D: INVENTORY OF SHALLOW OBSERVATION WELLS, CENTRAL LUZON BASIN, PHILIPPINES 261 APPENDIX E: SAMPLE COMPUTATION OF FULL NATURAL FLOW 268

10 i x TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued Page APPENDIX F: CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED PAIRS OF STREAMFLOW GAGING STATIONS 283 APPENDIX G: HISTORICAL DATA AND AUGMENTATION ESTIMATES AT VARIOUS STREAMFLOW GAGING STATIONS, CENTRAL LUZON BASIN, PHILIPPINES 286 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 314

11 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 2.1 Average Monthly Rainfall at Selected Stations, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Mean Monthly Temperature at Selected Stations, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Average Monthly Relative Humidity at Selected Stations, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Average Monthly Pan Evaporation at Selected Stations, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Land Utilization by Province, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Area Planted to Rice and Corn in , Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Population by Province, 1903 to 1970, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Existing Major Hydroelectric Power Projects, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Irrigable Area of Existing Irrigation Projects, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Actual Irrigated Areas from Typical Irrigation Systems, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Existing Water Supply Systems Established by the Government, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Rainfall Stations, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Streamflow Gaging Stations, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Rainfall Average Based on Two Methods Stations Used in the Comparison of Augmentation Procedures Augmentation Strategy for Test of Methods 120

12 xi LIST OF TABLES--Continued Table Page 7.3 Critical Minimum Values of Correlation Coefficient for the Mean Historical and Augmented Annual Flow of Station Q03, Pampanga River Historical and Augmented Annual Flow of Station Q07, Coronel River Historical and Augmented Annual Flow of Station Q22, Talavera River Historical and Augmented Annual Flow, of Station QSL, Angat River Historical and Augmented Annual Flow of Station Q78, Tarlac River Scores Obtained by Various Methods in the Point System, Double Mass Curve Comparison Percentages Obtained by Various Methods in the Percentage Scoring System, Double Mass Curve Comparison Historical dnd Augmented Annual Mean Flows of All Stations Scores Obtained by Various Methods in the Point System, Comparison of Mean Annual Flow Percentages Obtained by Various Methods in the Percentage Scoring System, Comparison of Mean Annual Flow Scores Obtained by Various Methods in the Point System, Comparison of Cumulative Deviations from Historical Data Average Percentages Obtained by Various Methods in the Percentage Scoring System, Comparison of Deviation from Historical Annual Flow Standard Deviation of Historical and Augmented Annual Flows of All Stations Scores Obtained by Various Methods in the Point System, Comparison of Standard Deviation of Annual Flows 152

13 xii LIST OF TABLES--Continued Table Page 7.18 Percentages Obtained by Various Methods in the Percentage Scoring System, Comparison of Standard Deviations of Annual Flows Peak Flow and Month of Occurrence of Historical and Augmented Annual Hydrograph Minimum Flow and Month of Occurrence of Historical and Augmented Annual Hydrograph Scores Obtained by Various Methods in the Point System, Comparison of Peak Flow of Annual Hydrographs Scores Obtained by Various Methods in the Point System, Comparison of Minimum Flow of Annual Hydrographs Percentages Obtained by Various Methods in the Percentage Scoring System, Comparison of Peak Flow of Annual Hydrographs Percentages Obtained by Various Methods in the Percentage Scoring System, Comparison of Minimum Flow of Annual Hydrographs Mean Monthly Flow of Historical Record and Augmentation Estimates Average Scores Obtained by Various Methods in the Point System, Comparison of Monthly Mean Average Percentages Obtained by Various Methods in the Percentage Scoring System, Comparison of Monthly Mean Standard Deviations of Historical and Augmented Monthly Flows Average Scores Obtained by Various Methods in the Point Scoring System, Comparison of Standard Deviations of Monthly Flows Average Percentages Obtained by Various Methods in the Percentage Scoring System, Comparison of Standard Deviations of Monthly Flows Summary of Average Scores Obtained by Various Methods in the Point Scoring System (Station Q22 Included) 172

14 LIST OF TABLES--Continued Table Page 7.32 Summary of Average Percentages Obtained by Various Methods in the Percentage Scoring System (Station Q22 Included) Summary of Average Scores Obtained by Various Methods in the Point Scoring System (Station Q22 Not Included) Summary of Average Percentages Obtained by Various Methods in the Percentage Scoring System (Station Q22 Not Included) Augmentation Strategy for Streamflow Gaging Stations, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Statistics of Annual Streamflows Before and After Augmentation by Percent Deviation Method Basin Average Rainfall for the Three Selected Water Years Average Rainfall and Streamflow in Three Selected Water Years, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Changes in Water Table Levels, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Monthly Rainfall and Pan Evaporation, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Monthly Adjustment Coefficients for Various Cases Adjusted Monthly Pan Evaporation and Corresponding Percentages, Water Year Adjusted Monthly Pan Evaporation and Corresponding Percentages, Water Year Adjusted Monthly Pan Evaporation and Corresponding Percentages, Water Year Annual Water Budget Analysis, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Actual Monthly Evapotranspiration, Water Year Actual Monthly Evapotranspiration, Water Year

15 xiv LIST OF TABLES--Continued Table Page 8.12 Actual Monthly Evapotranspiration, Water Year Water Budget Analysis for the Period June to November, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Estimated Annual Recharge for Three Water Years, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Water Quality of Central Luzon Rivers Chemical Quality of Surface Water, Dry and Wet Seasons Coefficients of T and S from Selected Wells Chemical Quality of Groundwater from'selected Wells Projected Water Requirements of the Central Luzon Basin E.1 Estimated Monthly Irrigation Diversion 274 E.2 Estimated Monthly Full Natural Flow, Pampanga River Streamflow Gaging Stations 280

16 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 2.1 Location Map of Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Average Monthly Rainfall in the Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Actual Data Files of Streamflow Gaging Stations along the Agno and Pampanga Rivers Typical Record Length in a River Basin Fill-In Path of YOR Method Relationship of Existing End Points in a Gap and Predicted Values Diagram of Data Matrix Components of a Hydrologic Budget Rainfall Stations, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines A Typical Gaging Station Affected by Reservoir Regulation and Irrigation Diversion Double Mass Curve of Annual Flows for Station Q03, Pampanga River Double Mass Curve of Annual Flows for Station Q07, Coronel River Double Mass Curve of Annual Flows for Station Q22, Talavera River Double Mass Curve of Annual Flows for Station QSL, Angat River Double Mass Curve of Annual Flows for Station Q78, Tarlac River Annual Means of All Stations for Various Augmentation Methods 142 XV

17 xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS--Continued Figure Page 7.7 Cumulative Annual Deviation of Augmentation Estimates from Historical Values, Station Q Cumulative Annual Deviation of Augmentation Estimates from Historical Values, Station Q Cumulative Annual Deviation of Augmentation Estimates from Historical Values, Station Q Cumulative Annual Deviation of Augmentation Estimates from Historical Values, Station QSL Cumulative Annual Deviation of Augmentation Estimates from Historical Values, Station Q Annual Hydrograph for Station Q Annual Hydrograph for Station Q Annual Hydrograph for Station Q Annual Hydrograph for Station QSL Annual Hydrograph for Station Q Isohyetal Map of Central Luzon Basin, Isohyetal Map of Central Luzon Basin, Isohyetal Map of Central Luzon Basin, Streamflow Gaging Stations Used in the Water Budget Analysis Shallow Observations Wells Monthly Rainfall and Pan Evaporation in Three Selected Water Years Relationship between AE/PE and Soil Moisture Content Mean Monthly Groundwater Stage in Three Selected Water Years 216

18 xvii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS--Continued Figure Page 9.1 Monthly Rainfall at Three Selected Gaging Stations Monthly Runoff at Two Selected Gaging Stations Estimated Annual Runoff, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines Central Luzon Aquifers Central Luzon Geological Cross-Sections Transmissivity Map of Central Luzon Frequency Curves of Specific-Capacity Data Drainage Areas of Streamflow Gaging Stations in Tandem A.1 Hydrogeologic Map of the Central Luzon Basin, Philippines. 255 B.1 Mean Annual Rainfall, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines E.1 Streamflow Gaging Stations and Irrigation Diversion Points. 269 E.2 Relationship of Irrigation Diversion and Upstream Gaged Flow, PRIS versus Q E.3 Relationship of Irrigation Diversion and Upstream Gaged Flow, PenRIS versus Q E.4 Relationship of Irrigation Diversion and Upstream Gaged Flow, TRIS versus Q E.5 Relationship of Irrigation Diversion and Upstream Gaged Flow, LTRIS versus Q22 273

19 ABSTRACT The study aims to provide a framework for the quantitative evaluation of the water resources on a regional basis. The work involves hydrologic data augmentation and analysis of the water budget of the Central Luzon Basin, a humid, tropical region. Four hydrologic data augmentation methodologies -- percent deviation, HEC-4, YOR, and Matalas-Jacobs -- were analyzed and compared. Streamflow data of five gaging stations in the Central Luzon Basin were divided into early-half and late-half series. Augmentation estimates based on the late-half series were compared with the corresponding historical early-half series. The methods were assessed based on eight comparison items and two scoring systems. The comparison items considered were double mass analysis, mean, cumulative annual deviations, and standard deviations, for the annual flows; and maximum, minimum, mean, and standard deviations, for the monthly flows. The percent deviation method excelled in both scoring systems and was selected as the best method for the hydrological characteristics and type of available data in the region. Application of the percent deviation method in augmenting the record of selected streamflow gaging stations within the Central Luzon Basin pointed out some limitations of the method. These limitations may be remedied by proper selection of the station on which the augmentation estimates are based. Strong statistical relationship between the xviii

20 xix dependent and base stations, in addition to other hydrological factors, should be satisfied for the derivation of more reliable estimates in the application of the percent deviation to streamflow data augmentation. The water budget analysis revealed that about 54 percent of the annual precipitation in the basin is measured as streamflow. The balance of 46 percent is shared by evapotranspiration and change in basin storage. An average annual evapotranspiration of about 1,070 mm was found. This is about 0.5 of the average Class A pan evaporation data from two measurement points. Surface water resources remain the most important source of water for the basin requirements. No serious water quality problems exist and surface water in the basin is suitable for both domestic and agricultural purposes. Groundwater could be a promising alternative resource for both domestic and agricultural uses. High recharge during the rainy season, about 5,000 to 7,000 MCM, and relatively shallow aquifers are among the significant features of the groundwater basin.

21 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Importance of the Work Inventory of the water resources of the Philippines was started long ago. Rainfall data collection must have started in the later years of the nineteenth century, while streamflow measurements began in the early part of the twentieth century (Bureau of Public Works, 1959). For various reasons, however, mainly due to inadequate funds and lack of coordination among agencies involved in the water resources development (United Nations, 1968), collection of basic data and subsequent processing and publication have been fragmentary, resulting in discontinuous records for a more or less random network of gaging stations. Appraisal and planning for the development of the country's water resources have to be based on short and fragmentary data on many locations, and long but discontinuous records in a few stations. Sites important to feasibility studies of development plans commonly have no, or only newly established, gaging stations for hydrological and meteorological data collection. A methdology for extending the data of stations having short records, based on other stations of longer record periods, would greatly facilitate the work of planners. 1

22 2 Assessment of the hydrologic budget of a river basin has been the subject of numerous research studies'. Unfortunately, all of these works were conducted in countries other than the Philippines. Yet, an impressive amount of hydrologic, as well as geologic, data have been available in the country, especially in the Central Luzon Basin (United Nations, 1968). Water balance studies in the Philippines were confined to small farm areas like those studied by Kampen (1970), Wickham (1971), and the National Irrigation Administration in 1975, which were conducted to provide basic information in irrigation water management for rice production. Other studies in Central Luzon consider only one or two components of the hydrologic budget, e.g., Bureau of Public Works (1959), Sandoval and Mamaril (1970). Although the Central Luzon has been the subject of several water resources studies 2, none addressed itself to the assessment of the basin water resources based on the solution of the total hydrologic budget equation. 1. To cite a few research studies concerning the hydrologic budget, there are the work of Rasmussen and Andreasen (1959), Meyboom (1961), Pittams (1968), Caldwell (1968), Rasmussen (1970), Walton (1970), and Toebes (1972). 2. Among the comprehensive studies and reports are the Bureau of Public Works (1959) report on the surface water supply of the Central Luzon, the Water Resources Planning and Development Committee (1961) report on the water resources of Central Luzon, the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation (1966) report on the Central Luzon Basin, the United Nations (1968) Water Resources Development Task Force report, and the report by Sandoval and Mamaril (1970) on hydrogeology of Central Luzon. Highlights of these reports will be discussed in Chapter 3.

23 3 Complete information on the total water resources of a basin would provide a baseline for the formulation of development plans. And information on the disposition of the water resources to the various components of the hydrologic budget, on the other hand, would give a quantitative picture essential to the allocation of the water resources to various sectors of development and to the economic comparison of development alternatives such as utilization of local groundwater resources versus a transbasin scheme. Furthermore, reduction of water losses due to non-beneficial evapotranspiration, for instance, may be assessed and then justified on the grounds of inadequacy of the water resources to meet the present and projected demands. 1.2 Scope and Objectives of the Work This study deals with the assessment of the water resources of the Central Luzon Basin based on the identification and quantification of the various components of the basin water budget. Basic hydrological and geological data essential to the analysis were obtained from data files of various government and private agencies. Four streamflow augmentation methods were used in extending the records of selected stations of the Agno and Pampanga Rivers, the major rivers draining the Central Luzon Basin. Comparison of the methods was made. The method best suited to existing data files and to the hydrological characteristics of Philippine river basins was selected and used to augment data of key stations for the evaluation of the surface water resources of the basin.

24 4 Estimation of the groundwater annual recharge was made based on water-table fluctuations and gravity yield estimates. The recharge amount relates the linkage between the surface and subsurface waters of the basin. It also provides information on the "safe yield" of the groundwater resources and the permeability of the basins' groundwaterbearing formations. It is hoped that this study will provide a framework for the quantitative evaluation of the water resources on a regional basis when sufficient physical and hydrological information is available. This would be the first step toward the formulation of alternative plans for the development of the water resources of the region.

25 CHAPTER 2 DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA 2.1 Location and Extent The Central Luzon Basin lies between latitudes 15 and 17 N, and longitudes 120 and 122 E. It is located in the central part of Luzon, the largest island in the Philippines. It is bounded on the east by the Sierra Madre Mountains, on the north by the Caraballo Mountains, on the west by the Zambales Mountains, on the south by Manila Bay, and on the northwest by the Lingayen Gulf (Figure 2.1). The Central Luzon Basin, as used in this study, includes the basins of two major river systems, the Agno River and the Pampanga River. It primarily covers the provinces of Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Pangasinan, and Tarlac, although portions of Zambales, Quezon, Mountain Province, Nueva Vizcaya, La Union, and Rizal are within the basin. The basin area is about 18,000 km 2 (6,944 mi 2 ) or about 17 percent of the Island of Luzon. The valley floor, which is about 40 percent of the basin, is known as the Central Luzon Plain. 2.2 Physiography Two major river systems drain the basin -- the Agno River system, carrying the runoff from about 5,749 km 2 (2,218 mi 2 ) and emptying north toward the Lingayen Gulf; and the Pampanga River system, draining about 8,912 km 2 (3,438 mi 2 ) and discharging toward the Manila Bay. Smaller 5

26 6 z (2 (2 3ILA n tnt5)4,6-301 s\n N z a. : t..:.!,,, 4.1S, 1-1, 1,", 1 i ' t 1'1..S ' I '/// " /.., --..:. aḷ, v.,spozva.. N/ 4 6,!!,,,ce 41:, "'"..._...v),.._ -.1% fr n.,... \./-..'-'(1'\ -,.%. ',11 n 1 Q.. 4 s,' 0 4t- 0 C.) SN v.l.nno N/,10111/ HaV VH8.3IS,._ c:a. 2 >1 1,1z. S LO.4 I ii_:1514\ 7 e&-. k)t. ( O'' N,7 oli d_211.12z. no..s1708 ci, iv z 18 e--,--, N. f I 2 r < z 1 /"..." 2 C,. Ir,9L, \ -v/v, % N. u. t, Z 4' s - 'FBA o - o o

27 7 rivers carrying runoff from small portions of the drainage area are: the Dagupan and Patalan Rivers to Lingayen Gulf (1,603 km 2 ) and Gomain, Porac, and Caulaman Rivers to Manila Bay (1,734 km2 ). The two river systems are separated by a low, poorly defined, topographic ridge extending generally northeast from Tarlac. Mount Arayat, an extinct volcano, is a distinct physical feature in the south-central part of the area. It rises about 1,000 meters above the surrounding area. To the east of Mount Arayat are depressions known generally as the San Antonio and Candaba Swamps. During the wet season, flood waters from the Pampanga River overflow into these depressions and inundate several thousand hectares of land. When the water surface recedes in the dry season, a substantial area of the swampland is cultivated. The Pampanga River, which is the main drainage channel for the eastern and southern portions of the basin, is formed by the Carranglan and Pantabangan Rivers in the Caraballo Mountains. It flows in a general southerly direction to its mouth in Manila Bay. Steep slopes of the stream channel in the upper reaches are very pronounced. Downstream of Rizal, Nueva Ecija, where the river emerges on the plain, the stream gradient becomes flatter as it progressively cuts through agricultural lands in Nueva Ecija, through extensive swamplands near Mount Arayat, and finally into commercial fishponds in Bulacan where the main channel divides into several smaller channels, forming tidal streams which eventually reach Manila Bay. The river length is about 284 km (176 mi).

28 8 Among the major tributaries of the Pampanga River are: the Pantabangan, Digmala, Coronel, Penaranda, Bulu, and Angat Rivers on the east side of the basin and the Carranglan, Talavera, hog Baliwag, and Rio Chico Rivers on the west side. The Agno River heads from the southern slope of the Cordillera Mountains in the Mountain Province. It flows in a generally southerly direction from the source to Tayug, Pangasinan, where it changes course to the southwest through Rosales and into the Poponto Swamp until it finally reaches Lingayen Gulf. The length of the river from the source to the mouth is about 270 km (168 mi). Among the major tributaries of the Agno River are: the Ambayoan, Totonoguen, Tarlac, Camiling, and Pila Rivers. At the mouth of the rivers in Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay, swamps reduce the velocity of the flow of water and induce deposition of sediments. The land surface around the deltas is only 5-10 km (16-33 ft) above the mean sea level. Three more swamp areas within the basin form natural surface storages, thus retarding the flow of the Agno and Pampanga Rivers. The Poponto Swamp, with an approximate area of 80 km 2, i s formed at the confluence of the Tarlac and Agno Rivers. San Antonio and Candaba Swamps, near Mount Arayat in the Pampanga River Basin, cover an aggregate area of about 240 km 2. Due to the low elevation of the swamps, they become discharge points of groundwater in the basin.

29 9 2.3 Geology The Central Luzon Basin is covered by alluvial materials and a thick sequence of sedimentary and pyroclastic rocks with intercalated volcanic rocks beneath the alluvium. The core of the Zambales Mountains is composed of ultramafic rocks. The Sierra Madre and Southern Cordillera Mountains are underlain by Mesozoic to Early Paleocene volcanic and metamorphic rocks. The Central Luzon Plain is part of the geosynclinal trough that extends from Manila Bay to the Ilocos Region. Deposition of a thick series of continental, brackish and marine sediments associated with volcanic rocks on the gently subsiding basin occurred from Eocene to Pliocene time. Fissure eruptions at the flank of the geosynclinal basin produced volcanic rocks intercalated with sedimentary sequence. Fault action in the Plio-Pleistocene time caused the sudden uplift of the mountain ranges east of the basin. The uplifted area became the source of very coarse materials which formed the Alat conglomerate and its equivalent time-rock units. Continuous sedimentation raised the level of the basin, resulting in the gradual recession of the sea. The hydrogeologic map of the Central Luzon Basin is shown in Appendix A Description of Geologic Units Only rock units younger than Oligocene are included because of their bearing on the groundwater resources of the basin. Pre-Miocene. The oldest rocks forming the core of the mountain ranges surrounding the basin consist of metamorphic, basic, and ultrabasic rocks. These rocks were probably formed during the Mesozoic era.

30 10 Lower Miocene. The oldest Miocene rocks in the region are represented by the equivalent Angat and Moriones formations. Angat formation consists of thin-bedded calcareous shale and clayey sandstone. The formation was deposited in shallow to moderate depths. Fine-grained limestone, tuffaceous sandstone, and coralline limestone with calcareous siltstone and sandstone form the Moriones formation which is about 1,500 meters thick from measured sections. Middle Miocene. This is represented by the Malinta and Madlum formations which were deposited over the older Moriones and Angat formations. The Madlum formation is composed of clastic, volcanic, and limestone members. The clastic member, which consists of alternating shale and sandstone beds, occupies the lowest section of the Madlum formation. The middle volcanic member is composed of rocks which are generally massive and of little importance as groundwater sources. The limestone member consists of bedded and massive limestone units. Solution cavities and caverns make the units porous. Combined thickness of the limestone units has been reported to be about 150 meters. Interbedded sequences of sandstone, shale, conglomerate, and tuff compose the Malinta formation. The lower section consists of wellcemented and massive volcanic rocks, and lithic tuff. The tuff is composed of fine to coarse volcanic fragments cemented with volcanic ash. Clastic rocks of this formation are poor prospects for groundwater development since they are poorly sorted, compact, and well-cemented. Upper Miocene. Among the rock units formed during this period are the Makapilapil formation, Lambak shale, Tarlac formation, and the

31 11 Pantabangan formation. The Tarlac formation is of particular significance to groundwater studies. The Tarlac formation, which consists of interbedded sequences of tuffaceous sandstone, shale, and some conglomerate, form low rolling hills extending from Capas, Tarlac, to Urdaneta, Pangasinan. The sandstone, which is composed of medium to coarse sand grains loosely cemented with tuffaceous materials, is friable and porous. The formation, which is correlative with Makapilapil and Lambak formations in eastern Bulacan and Nueva Ecija, is reported to be about 1,200 meters thick. The Lambak shale and Makapilapil formation cover small adjoining areas near the Nueva Ecija-Bulacan border. The Lambak shale is composed of hard, massive, and compact but highly fractured shale and occasional conglomeratic arkosic sandstone. Estimated thickness of the Lambak shale is about 100 meters. The Makapilapil formation, which outcrops only in Nueva Ecija, is composed of flatbedded sequences of sandstone, shale, and lenses of conglomerate and limestone. The sandstone is formed of medium to coarse sand grains cemented with tuffaceous and calcareous materials. The Pantabangan formation, which occupies the southwestern foothills of the Cordillera Mountains east and south of San Jose, Nueva Ecija, is primarily composed of massive conglomerate with thin lenses of coarse grained sandstone. Rounded cobbles and boulders of diorite, volcanic rocks, and limestone tightly cemented with clay and sand form the conglomerate. The formation rests on Cretaceous to Paleocene volcanic rocks.

32 12 Pliocene. Tartaro formation was deposited during this period in addition to other sedimentary units that accumulated during the upper Miocene time. This formation is essentially composed of thick-bedded siltstone and clayey sandstone. The loosely cemented and poorly consolidated sandstone occupies the top and bottom section of the formation. The sandstone is composed of medium to coarse grains of volcanic rocks and limestone. Maximum thickness of the formation is estimated at 150 meters. Pleistocene. Alat and Guadalupe formations represent the Pleistocene units. The Alat formation outcrops at the Rizal-Bulacan area toward Manila Bay. There are indications, however, that the formation extends as far as Cabanatuan City in Nueva Ecija beneath the alluvial deposits. It is primarily composed of massive conglomerate over weathered siltstone and tuffaceous sandstone. The Guadalupe formation, which generally overlies the Alat formation, is found outside the basin being considered. Sandy and conglomerate tuff, which forms part of the formation, supplies considerable amounts of water in urban areas surrounding Manila and Quezon City. Recent. Abrupt changes in gradient at the foothills of the mountain ranges resulted in thick and extensive alluvial deposits in the plains of Central Luzon. The composition and thickness of the alluvium varies along the length of Central Luzon. Rounded cobbles and boulders of igneous and sedimentary rocks predominate in the floodplains of the Agno and Pampanga Rivers. Fine to medium sand with considerable amount of clay and seashells form the

33 13 deltaic deposits around Manila Bay and Lingayen Gulf. Alluvium surrounding the volcanic centers consists of considerable amounts of clay. Thin and numerous sand layers make up the water-bearing zones. Along the Agno River, the thickness of the alluvium varies from about 75 meters near Asingan, Pangasinan, to about 20 meters near Rosales and San Manuel, Pangasinan. Across the plain, the thickness of the alluvium varies from about 75 meters near the center at the Tarlac-Nueva Ecija border between Victoria, Tarlac, and Guimba, Nueva Ecija, to about 30 meters near the foothills of the Zambales Mountains in Tarlac. The deltaic deposits at Dagupan and Manila areas are estimated to be about 200 meters thick. 2.4 Climate The Central Luzon Basin has two distinct seasons -- wet, from May to October, and dry, from November to April. The mean annual rainfall varies from less than 2,000 mm (80 in) in the central part, to more than 4,000 mm (160 in) in the northwestern part. Appendix B presents the mean annual rainfall in the basin. The rainfall variation may be attributed primarily to the shielding effect of the topographic relief surrounding the basin upon the water-bearing seasonal winds. The Caraballo Mountains on the north and northeast shield the basin from the northeast monsoon from October to January. The Sierra Madre Mountains on the east shield the basin from the east trade winds from February to April. The Zambales Mountains on the south shield the basin from the southwest monsoon from May to October.

34 14 About 90 percent of the annual precipitation generally occurs during the southwest monsoon, with the heaviest precipitation usually occurring in August. Table 2.1 shows the average monthly rainfall and the percentage of May to October rainfall over the annual total at selected stations in the basin. Figure 2.2 illustrates the mean monthly rainfall based on the arithmetic average of 44 stations. Fairly uniform temperature is experienced within the basin. As shown in Table 2.2, a mean temperature of about 27 C is common in the Central Plain. Average relative humidity may range from 65 to 85 percent in the lowlands and from 80 to 90 percent in the mountain areas. Average monthly relative humidity is shown in Table 2.3 for Baguio, Dagupan, and Cab anatuan. Observed pan evaporation within the basin is given in Table 2.4. Annual pan evaporation generally exceeds 1,800 mm, with the monthly maximum occurring in April or March. 2.5 Soils and Land Use Fertile alluvial soils derived from the mountain ranges flanking the plains make up the soils of the Central Luzon Plains. This consists mainly of coarse sand, pebbles, clays, and shells. The area is the most extensively cultivated part of the Philippines and has been known as the "rice bowl" of the country. Poorly drained soils, usually clayey, are found in the lowlands, on level ridge tops, in valleys, and in depressions in the hills and mountains. These lands are largely utilized as rice fields. The subsoils, 30 to 60 am deep, are compacted clay pan of very low permeability.

35 15 \ 0.0 CV CT. \ N. CO CT) (N 0 CN1 H If) C V) CS) N.C) ri r (N H t \ CN CO H \O %.0 CO cy) Lf) Lf) Lf) ( 0 V) N. (N CA. '0 cc N. (V V) C N \ V) N N 00 \ c) cr) vp %.o N- 0 V) 0 Lf) 'O LO h- C (N cl Ln c i (C) \ 0 Lf) (N (V 00 g 0 r-f 4-) cd 4-) rj 'O N C N- CN (N \ID dt Cg 00 H 0`. \ 0 (f) dr- 0 N. dr CO tr) ri V) \O \C) CV 0 CA \ 0 C) d- Cg CTi CN N- C '0 00 Ls) CV 0 0 Tn tr) (N v) dl' V) H ri N- O \ 0 C) Cr) 0 CO CN \ 0 'O CN (NI C CN \ 0 N. Lf) V) 0 dr d- \ 0 CO. CN CO C:T1 (N CO N. CO N. Cg ri (NI ri V) if)v) ri V) CO \ 0 COO r-i Cg 0 0 C7) V) 0) ri cr, r-. v) Li') CN CO H o r- LI) r-4 ri CV (N CN CD dr d' dr LA H ri zzl H Vr) d- 0) 0 \C) V) H H 1-1 ci).4 4-) E CI)a) 41 cl)4-) 0 g 71. elo -1-) g., d 0 0 c.) v)

36 APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR MONTH Figure 2.2 Average Monthly Rainfall in the Central Luzon Basin, Philippines.

37 17 Table 2.2 Mean Monthly Temperature at Selected Stations, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines. -- Temperature in C. Station Month Cabanatuan Dagupan MRRTC* Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar *Maligaya Rice Research and Training Center, Munoz, Nueva Ecija.

38 18 Table 2.3 Average Monthly Relative Humidity at Selected Stations, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines. -- Humidity in percent. Station Month Baguio Dagupan Cabanatuan MRRTC* Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar *Maligaya Rice Research and Training Center, Munoz, Nueva Ecija.

39 19 Table 2.4 Average Monthly Pan Evaporation at Selected Stations, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines. -- Evaporation in mm. Station Month Tibagan (Bulacan) Hda. Luisita (Tarlac) San Manuel ' Pangasinan Sto. Tomas* Reservoir Benguet Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep O ct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Total *Floating pan.

40 20 This property considerably reduces the natural drainage capability of the overlying soil and makes it suitable for rice crops. Gently sloping upland areas adjacent to the lowlands are devoted to other crops such as sugar cane, coconut, and vegetables. These areas have more or less friable, well-drained soils. Such soils, when used for lowland irrigated rice, will generally have higher water requirements than soils with natural water-retarding clay pan. The Central Luzon Plain is an agricultural area with a potential land resource of about 1,800,000 ha. It represents one of the most extensively cultivated areas in the Philippines. Virtually all land suitable for cultivation is now being farmed, although a substantial part of the agricultural production occurs only during the wet season. Nearly 40 percent of this farmed area is devoted to rice and corn. Table 2.5 presents the land utilization in the area and the percentage of various dispositions; and Table 2.6 gives the area devoted to rice and corn in About 1,660,000 ha of the basin lands have been covered by soil surveys. About 825,000 ha (nearly 50%) of these surveyed lands are classed as suitable for irrigation. This total area suitable for irrigation consists of 508,000 ha without limitation, 208,000 ha less suitable due to soils limitation, and 109,000 ha less suitable due to topographical limitations. 2.6 Population The total population in the provinces of Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Pangasinan, and Tarlac, based on the latest census in 1970, is

41 - 21 N %.0 C7) NI NI ct 00 ri r-1 r I r - 0 Cr) Is - C7) V) 00 Cr) N 0 CO 00 r-1 Cr) C:1" r-1nr i tr) 00 c) t.") d- d-te) t-r) Le-) -zt 00 d- d- <1- r I "Zr N 00 r I LI)N tr) o 0 C.) g g g H g 0 'ri cd ri Cd O 0 g 4-) H cd = 0 0.,-.1 p cd 0 Co CI) g O n ( cd cd N CL) N E cd cd C/ N

42 22 Table 2.6 Area Planted to Rice and Corn in , Central Luzon Basin, Philippines. -- Area in ha. Province Rice Corn Total Bulacan 88, ,390 Nueva Ecija 34,840-34,840 Pampanga 88, ,810 Pangasinan 150,190 4, ,230 Tarlac 15,920-15,920 Total 378,760 5, ,190

43 23 4,537, an increase of 1,204,895 (36.26%) over the 1960 census. Table 2.7 summarizes the population data in the five provinces for the period 1903 to Water Resources Development Various government agencies are engaged in the assessment and development of the water resources of the Philippines. Collection of basic hydrological data and flood control activities are undertaken by the Bureau of Public Works (BPW), but the National Power Corporation (NPC) and the National Irrigation Administration (NIA) also operate rainfall and streamflow gaging stations. Agencies dealing with the groundwater are the BPW, the NIA, the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage Services (MWSS), formerly the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority (NWSA), the Bureau of Mines and Geology (BMG), and many private companies and farmers. Development of hydroelectric power is under the jurisdiction of the National Power Corporation. Since 1973, upon the integration of the Irrigation Service Unit (ISU) with the NIA, the NIA became the only major implementing government agency for irrigation Hydroelectric Power There are 19 completed hydroelectric projects in the Philippines, and only five are classified as large, exceeding 36,000 kilowatts capacity. Three of these major hydroelectric power plants are within the Central Luzon Basin -- the Ambuklao (75 MW) and Binga (100 MW) along the Agno River, and the Angat Multi-Purpose project (218 MW) in the Pampanga River basin. The two other projects are the Caliraya (36 MW) and the

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45 25 Maria Cristina (150 MW), which are located in Laguna Province and Lanao Province, respectively. The Ambuklao, Binga, Angat, and Caliraya Projects are connected to the Central Luzon transmission grid providing power for the Central Luzon area and Metropolitan Manila. A sixth large project which is under construction is the Upper Pampanga River Project (UPRP) in Nueva Ecija Province. The multi-purpose project, when completed, has an installed capacity of 100,000 kilowatts. The power phase of the UPRP is envisioned to be completed in The power output of the UPRP will also be connected to the Central Luzon transmission grid. Table 2.8 gives the existing major hydroelectric power projects in Central Luzon. The total power capability is 393,000 kilowatts and the yearly available energy is about billion kilowatt hours Irrigation Irrigation projects in the Philippines are classified into three categories: national, communal, and private. National irrigation projects include gravity irrigation projects which are constructed, operated, and maintained by the government through the NIA, and small pump projects which are developed by the government through either the NIA or the Agricultural Productivity Commission (APC). The communal irrigation projects are self-help projects which are given assistance by the government through either the NIA or the Department of Local Government and Community Development (DLGCD), formerly the Presidential Arm on Community Development (PACD). Private irrigation projects are those constructed and operated by individuals or groups of farmers without any assistance

46 26 Table 2.8 Existing Major Hydroelectric Power Projects, Central Luzon Basin, Philippines. Province Power Source or Name of Project Power Capability (Kw) Annual Energy Available (Kw-HT) Benguet Agno River Atbuklao Hydroelectric Project 75, ,000,000 Binga Hydroelectric Project 100, ,000,000 Nueva Ecija Pampanga River Upper Pampanga River Project 100,000 Under Construction Bulacan Angat Multi-Purpose Project 218, ,000,000 Total* 393,000 1,566,000,000 *Upper Pampanga River Project not included.

47 27 from the government. About 1.25 million hectares of cultivated land are under irrigation in the Philippines. Some 225,000 hectares are irrigated through private systems. A ten-year irrigation development program for the period 1975 to 1985 (National Irrigation Administration, 1974) aims to increase the total irrigable area of government constructed and assisted projects from the present 1 million hectares to 2.35 million hectares, an average annual increase of 135,000 hectares. A planning horizon longer than ten years was not attempted due to lack of reliable data on water resources (National Irrigation Administration, 1974). In the Central Luzon Basin, irrigation systems in the five provinces primarily comprising the basin have a total irrigable area of more than 390,000 hectares. Table 2.9 presents the irrigable area by province. This does not include private irrigation systems due to lack of complete records on this category. Most national irrigation projects are the run-of-the-river type wherein a diversion dam is constructed across a stream to raise the water level, eventually making it flow by gravity through conveyance and distribution network of canals to the farm lands. Except for the Angat River Irrigation System in Bulacan and UPRP in Nueva Ecija, and areas irrigated by pumps, essentially all irrigation projects have no storage and regulation facilities, so that water supply is fully dependent on the available flow of the rivers. And because of wide variations of streamflow throughout the year, all irrigable areas could not be adequately served by the irrigation system. Some systems supply irrigation water

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