5. Steam Turbine Performance

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1 5. Steam Turbine Performance h HP = 88-90% IP = 90-94% Fossil Reheat HP = 82% LP = 85% LP = 87% LP = 90-91% Saturation Line Nuclear Reheat Nuclear Non-Reheat s Steam Turbine 5. Performance 1 / 93

2 Heat Balance 2 Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies 15 Factors Affecting Cycle Performance 21 Thermal Kit 65 Steam Turbine 5. Performance 2 / 93

3 Major Parameters Affecting Steam Turbine Performance Heat Balance Steam Turbine Performance Thermodynamic Efficiency Working fluids Throttle pressure and temperature (enthalpy) Throttle flow (specific heat) Steam Cycles Reheating (non-, single-, double) Regenerating Exhaust pressure The amount of enthalpy drop Others Air preheating Desuperheating Part load operation mode Mechanical (Fluid Dynamic) Efficiency Section efficiencies (in terms of energy conversion) Throttling losses occurred in valves Stage losses (profile, secondary flow, leakage loss) Advanced airfoil shapes for nozzle and bucket Advanced vortex blades Exhaust loss, and interface loss Mechanical and electrical losses Bearing loss Generator loss Power for auxiliary system in plant Fan power Power for a lube oil pump Others LSB Makeup flow Pressure drop in boiler and extraction lines Steam Turbine 5. Performance 3 / 93

4 Turbine (Generator) Output [1/2] Required generator output = plant net output + plant auxiliary loads. Steam turbine output = generator output + generator electrical losses + turbine generator mechanical losses. Historically, turbines have been designed to have 5% margins above required rated steam flows and pressure to provide for manufacturing tolerances and variations in flow coefficients. Therefore, the steam flow is 5% greater than that required for rated output with rated steam pressure (normal pressure). Under VWO-NP (VWO, normal pressure) condition, the turbine generator output is approximately 104% of rated. The pressure margin is included to operate safely and continuously at 105% of rated pressure (overpressure) with VWO. Under VWO-OP (VWO, overpressure) condition, the turbine generator output is approximately 109% of rated and the main steam flow is 110% to 111% of rated. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 4 / 93

5 Turbine (Generator) Output [2/2] Recent trends indicate that some manufacturers are not including all of the 5% steam flow margin. The designer may want to include only a part of the steam flow margin with consideration of the full over-pressure operation margins. The designers should specify that the turbine be capable of operation at VWO-OP because operators typically attempt to operate at those conditions. The designer needs to design the steam generator and balance of plant equipment to support the VWO-OP conditions if he has included them in the establishment of the steam turbine generator rating. Designing for the VWO-OP condition is recommended even if not included in the rating definition, because significant output increase can be achieved at little cost by being capable of operating at VWO-OP. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 5 / 93

6 Typical Power Plant Steam Flow Main Steam Steam Generator Stop V/V Control V/V Crossover Front Standard HP IP LP Gen Exciter Cold Reheat Reheater Ventilation V/V Hot Reheat Reheat Stop and Intercept V/V Condenser Steam Turbine 5. Performance 6 / 93

7 Heat Balance Fossil, 700 MW, 3500 psig/1000f/1000f Steam Turbine 5. Performance 7 / 93

8 Heat Balance Fossil, 500 MW, 2400 psig/1000f/1000f Steam Turbine 5. Performance 8 / 93

9 Heat Balance Nuclear, 1000 MW Steam Turbine 5. Performance 9 / 93

10 Heat Balance Heat balances are provided by the turbine manufacturer. Cycle performance is represented in the heat balance diagram which shows the steam/condensate flows, pressures, temperatures, and enthalpies. These parameters are used to determine equipment design conditions. A complete heat balance provides enough information to balance the energy distribution. Heat balance diagram also indicates ELEP and UEEP, generator losses and net generator output. On the basis of this information, the engineer can perform an energy balance for the major equipment associated with the turbine, feedwater, condensate, and heat rejection systems. A number of heat balance computer programs are commercially available. However, it also can be performed by hand calculation. Hand calculation, which is time consuming caused by iteration, is instructive because it permits the engineer to gain an understanding of the interrelationships of the various equipment. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 10 / 93

11 Make Up Establishing a Heat Balance 10%P Reheater 3%P Main Steam 3%P BFPT BFPT = 82.6% HP IP LP Generator %P 20 3%P 6%P 21 6%P 6%P 6%P 4 6%P SSR Condenser 2.0 in.hga HTR7-3F 10 F HTR6 0F 10 F BFP HTR5 (DA) 0 F HTR4 2F 10 F HTR3 2F 10 F HTR2 5F 10 F HTR1 5F 5 F SPE BFP = 87% Steam Turbine 5. Performance 11 / 93

12 Typical Assumptions Made in Establishing a Heat Balance 1. The boiler feed pump suction conditions will be the temperature and pressure of the deaerator. Boiler feed pump discharge pressure is 125% of the turbine throttle pressure. 2. The boiler feed pump efficiencies will vary with load as follows: Condition BFP Efficiency VWO-OP, VWO-NP, and rated load 84% 75% of rated 83% 50% of rated 67% 25% of rated 40% 3. For a turbine cycle with a motor-driven boiler feed pump, the variable speed coupling efficiency will vary with load as follows: Condition Coupling Efficiency VWO-OP 85% VWO-NP, and rated load 82% 75% of rated 76% 50% of rated 73% 25% of rated 68% The combined motor and transmission efficiency will vary with load as follows: Condition Motor and Transmission Efficiency VWO-OP, VWO-NP, and rated load 94% 75% of rated 93% 50% of rated 92% 25% of rated 89% Steam Turbine 5. Performance 12 / 93

13 Typical Assumptions Made in Establishing a Heat Balance 4. For a turbine with a turbine-driven boiler feed pump exhausting to the main condenser, the BFPT(Boiler Feed Pump Turbine) will operate at an exhaust pressure 0.5 in.hga greater than the exhaust pressure of the main turbine. BFPT expansion efficiencies will vary with load as follows: Condition BFPT Efficiency VWO-OP, VWO-NP, and rated load 80% 75% of rated 78% 50% of rated 77% 25% of rated 77% The pressure drop in the extraction line to the BFPT is 3% of the inlet pressure. At low loads, the BFPT will require steam from a source of higher pressure than is available in the crossover line. Below approximately 0.35 TFR(Throttle Flow Ratio), the BFPT takes steam as required from the main steam line. 5. There is a pressure drop between the turbine stage and the extraction flange. This value is typically 3% of stage pressure. A pressure drop also occurs from the turbine extraction flange to the heater. This value is usually 3% or 5% of the extraction flange pressure. For extractions at a turbine exhaust or at the crossover pipe, no pressure drop due to an extraction flange exists, only an extraction line pressure drop. 6. There is a pressure drop from the HP turbine exhaust to the intercept valves of the IP turbine because of hot and cold reheat piping and the reheater. This value is normally taken to be 10% of the HP turbine exhaust pressure. 7. The condensate leaving the condenser will be at saturation temperature corresponding to the turbine exhaust pressure. 8. The condensate will be considered to be saturated liquid at the heater inlet and outlet temperatures. 9. Calculations will consider the feedwater downstream of the boiler feed pump as compressed liquid. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 13 / 93

14 Approximate Flow Distribution for Typical Regenerative/Reheat Cycles 1. The reheater flow is approximately 90% of the throttle flow. 2. The BFPT extraction flow from an IP to LP turbine crossover is 4% to 6% of the throttle flow. 3. The turbine exhaust flow is 65% to 75% of the throttle flow, with the remaining flow being taken for heating the feedwater and driving the BFPT. 4. Rules of thumb, when the temperature rise across a heater is known: a. For the low pressure (LP) heaters and deaerator, the extraction flow is approximately 1% of throttle flow for each 14F temperature rise. b. For the high pressure (HP) heaters, the extraction flow is approximately 1% of throttle flow for each 10F temperature rise. 5. If a heat balance is available for other than the desired load, ratio the extractions by the ratio of the throttle flows for a first guess. However, these may differ up to 30% from the final calculations. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 14 / 93

15 Heat Balance Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies Factors Affecting Cycle Performance Thermal Kit Steam Turbine 5. Performance 15 / 93

16 Plant Net Efficiency Based on LHV Plant Net Efficiency Based on HHV Steam Turbine Performance The Rankine cycle, the basic cycle used for electric power generation, mainly consists of four components: steam generator, turbine, condenser, and pump. The performance of a power plant is influenced not only by the steam turbines, but also by the choice of steam turbine cycle. Thermal efficiency of the cycle can be increased either by reducing the condenser pressure or by increasing the turbine inlet pressure and temperature. The principal cycle considerations are those of regenerative feedwater heating by turbine extraction steam and of reheating. The performance of the steam turbine is governed by the losses occurred in it. % % in.hga USC 300 bar/600c Double reheat Single reheat 1.9 in.hga C 130C 250 bar/540c Excess Air Discharge Flue Gas Temperature Main Steam Condition Reheat Back Pressure Steam Turbine 5. Performance 16 / 93

17 발전시스템에서의열역학제 2 법칙 T H T 3 Q H q in 에너지변환 W q in q in w turbine Q L 2 w pump T L 1 q out 4 th W Q H L 1 H Q Q Q H Q Q L H s 외부에어떠한영향도남기지않고한사이클동안에계가열원으로부터받은열을모두일로바꾸는것은불가능하다. ( 열효율이 100% 인열기관을만들수없으며, 작동유체는반드시공급된에너지의일부를주위와열교환시켜야한다 ). 모든열기관은고온의열원에서열을흡수하여역학적일을하고저온의열원으로열을방출한다. 발전시스템의경우증기발생기에서고온의열을공급받고복수기에서열을방출한다. 그러나열기관주변에있는자연상태의온도보다낮은온도로열을버릴수는없다. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 17 / 93

18 Available Energy Useful Energy (Stage Work) Stage Efficiency Stage efficiency is defined as the ratio of mechanical work produced by the stage to the thermal energy available. h 1 p 1 st h h 1 1 h h 2 2s Nozzle profile loss Bucket profile loss Secondary flow loss + leakage loss 2s 2 b a p 2 Stage Loss s Steam Turbine 5. Performance 18 / 93

19 Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies h h IP Turbine Section Efficiencies 545 psia 534 psia HP = 88-90% IP = 90-94% 92.7% Pressure drop in intercept valve (2%) 89.1% 91.2% 180 psia LP = 90-91% 175 psia Saturation Line h h Fossil Reheat Nuclear Reheat Nuclear Non-Reheat h h Pressure drop in the IP exhaust hood, the cross-over pipe, or the LP turbine inlet s s Steam Turbine 5. Performance 19 / 93

20 Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies In general, HP turbine efficiency includes the losses occurred in the stop valves, control valves, and HP exhaust hood. Blade profile loss increases with blade length. However, the amount of secondary loss is not changed, although blade length increases. This is same for the leakage loss. Therefore, stage efficiency increases with blade length(height). For this reason, the efficiency of HP turbine is lower than that of IP turbine. LP turbine has longer blades, but its efficiency is lower than IP turbine. This is because the last several stages of LP turbine are operated in the wet steam region. Typically, every 1% of wetness gives a 1% loss in isentropic efficiency. The efficiency of nuclear HP turbine is lower than that of fossil HP turbine because of moisture loss. This fact is same for LP turbines. Nuclear LP turbine uses moisture removal buckets to reduce the moisture loss as well as water droplet erosion. The turbine section efficiencies may have different values because the losses occurred at the interface are included or not. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 20 / 93

21 Heat Balance Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies Factors Affecting Cycle Performance Thermal Kit Steam Turbine 5. Performance 21 / 93

22 Effects of Cycle Parameters Base A. Condenser Pressure, in.hga Relative net output (kw) 2, ,073-9,078-14,091 Relative net heat rate (Btu/kWh) B. Pressure Drop in Boiler (including piping to the turbine), % Relative net output (kw) Relative net heat rate (Btu/kWh) C. Pressure Drop in Reheater, % Relative net output (kw) 1, ,445-2,935 Relative net heat rate (Btu/kWh) D. Pressure Drop in Crossover Pipe, % Relative net output (kw) ,824-3,037-4,318 Relative net heat rate (Btu/kWh) E. Boiler Steam Temperature, F 950 1,000 1,050 1,100 Relative net output (kw) -35, ,585 68,738 Relative net heat rate (Btu/kWh) F. Use of Air Preheater Yes No Relative net output (kw) --- 8,291 Relative net heat rate (Btu/kWh) Data is produced using the fossil power plant, 726 MW, 3500 psig/1000f/1000f Steam Turbine 5. Performance 22 / 93

23 1. Superheating [1/3] T Equivalent Carnot Cycle Equivalent Cycle Hot Temperature T Equivalent Cycle Hot Temperature [Ideal Rankine Cycle for a Typical Nuclear Power] s [Ideal Rankine Cycle for a Typical Fossil Power] s The higher the equivalent cycle hot temperature, the greater the cycle efficiency. The average temperature where heat is supplied in the boiler can be increased by superheating the steam. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 23 / 93

24 1. Superheating [2/3] The overall efficiency is increased by superheating the steam. This is because the mean temperature where heat is added increases, while the condenser temperature remains constant. T 3 Increasing the steam temperature not only improves the cycle efficiency, but also reduces the moisture content at the turbine exhaust end and thus increases the turbine internal efficiency. The turbine work out is also increased by superheating the steam without increasing the boiler pressure. 2 1 heat added heat lost When the superheating the steam is employed in the cycle, the important thing is that the quality of the steam at the turbine exhaust is higher than 90%. s Steam Turbine 5. Performance 24 / 93

25 1. Superheating [3/3] Evolution of Rankine Cycle T Ultra Supercritical Supercritical s Early 20 th century s Steam Turbine 5. Performance 25 / 93

26 Turbine heat rate, Btu/kWh 2. Condenser Pressure [1/3] Except for choked turbine exhaust conditions, the lower the turbine exhaust pressure, the higher the cycle efficiency. KW HR HR % Throttle Flow Rate KW = change of generator kw output, %. 70% HR = change of heat rate, % 80% T a a 4 4 b 3 p 4 p 4 s 90% 100% Turbine output, kw Condenser Pressure (in.hga) Steam Turbine 5. Performance 26 / 93

27 Steam Turbine Output, MW 2. Condenser Pressure [2/3] F-40.0"LSB D-11 steam turbine for GE 207FA, 1800 psia / 1050F / 1050F F-33.5"LSB F-30.0"LSB Condenser Pressure, in.hga 4.0 Steam Turbine 5. Performance 27 / 93

28 2. Condenser Pressure [3/3] [Exercise 5.1] 복수기압력을 2.5 in.hga 로운전했을때발전기출력이 700 MW, heat rate 가 7826 Btu/kWh 이다. 주증기조건을그대로유지시킨상태에서복수기압력을 4.5 in.hga 로운전하였더니열율이 7980 Btu/kWh 가되었다. 이때나타나는출력변화율을계산하시오. [Solution 1] 증기터빈출력변화율은다음식으로구할수있다. HR KW HR HR = {( )/7826}100 = 1.97% KW = 1.97/(1+1.97/100)= 1.93% [Solution 2] HR = Q/W Q = 700,000 kw 7826 Btu/kWh = 5, Btu/hr W = Q/HR = 686,491 kw W = {(700, ,491)/700,000}100 = 1.93% Steam Turbine 5. Performance 28 / 93

29 3. Increasing Steam Pressure [1/5] The cycle maximum temperature is constant. Increased boiler pressure has a higher mean temperature of heat addition. T However, the temperature of heat rejection is unchanged. 3 c 3 Usually, the amount of the cycle work is not changed although boiler pressure is increased. This is because the amount of the increased work (top side) and the amount of the decreased work (right hand side) caused by pressure increase is almost same increase in q in decrease in q in 4 4 However, the amount of heat rejected is decreased. Thus, the cycle efficiency increases with boiler pressure. a decrease in q out b b s The only one drawback is that the quality of the exhaust flow become worse. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 29 / 93

30 Turbine heat rate, Btu/kWh 3. Increasing Steam Pressure [2/5] Main steam conditions strongly influence the turbine performance At a given maximum cycle temperature, the turbine performance can be improved by increasing the main steam pressure. The higher the steam pressure, the better the turbine performance Throttle Pressure 2400 psia However, there is a temperature limit beyond that turbine and boiler will become less reliable psia 6 Flows, 30 LSB Throttle steam 2400 or 3500 psia, 1000F/1000F Nominal output 700 MW at 1.5 in.hga An increase in steam pressure at turbine inlet will increase the cycle thermal efficiency Turbine output, MW The casing becomes quite thick as the steam pressure increases, and consequently steam turbines exhibit large thermal inertia. Therefore, steam turbine must be warmed up and cooled down slowly to minimize the differential expansion between the rotating blades and the stationary parts. Large steam turbine can take over ten hours to warm up. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 30 / 93

31 3. Increasing Steam Pressure [3/5] T 3 T max, USC Subcritical USC Critical Point 3 3 T max, subcritical s Steam Turbine 5. Performance 31 / 93

32 3. Increasing Steam Pressure [4/5] Normally, the manufacturing companies indicate the guaranteed and expected performance of steam turbines. In the guaranteed performance the steam turbine is specified to produce a certain number of kilowatts while operating at rated steam conditions, 3.5 in.hga exhaust pressure, 0% cycle make-up, and other cycle feedwater heating conditions. To assure that the steam turbine will pass the guaranteed throttle flow, the turbine is frequently designed for a steam flow rate larger than the guaranteed value. This new value is sometimes called the expected steam flow and is usually around 105% of the guaranteed value. For this reason, the actual output of the turbine is expected to be larger than the guaranteed value. The turbine is guaranteed to be safe for continuous operation with valve wide open. Furthermore, the turbine is also capable of operating continuously with VWO and at the same time at 105% of rated initial pressure. Under these conditions the expected steam flow would become maximum (approximately 110% of the guaranteed value) and thus the expected turbine output. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 32 / 93

33 3. Increasing Steam Pressure [5/5] [ Operating conditions for Korean standard 500 MW fossil power ] 분류 VWO MGR NR Constant Pressure Operation Sliding Pressure Operation 출력 (kw) 550,000 (110%) 541,650 (108.3%) 500,000 (100%) 375,000 (75%) 250,000 (50%) 150,000 (30%) 유량 (lb/hr) 3,757,727 (112.7%) 3,684,046 (110.5%) 3,335,116 (100%) 2,389,835 (71.7%) 1,564,131 (46.9%) 980,271 (29.4%) 복수기압력 (in.hga) 주증기온도 (F) 주증기압력 (psia) (100%) (100%) (100%) (81.38%) (54.47%) (32.79%) 1 st STA Bowl P. (psia) (100%) [97.00%] (100%) [97.00%] (100%) [97.00%] (81.39%) [97.00%] (54.49%) [97.03%] (32.79%) [97.00%] 1 st STA Shell P. (psia) (113.9%) (111.5%) (100%) (72.9%) (48.9%) (31.4%) FWPT 동력 (kw) 18,755 (3.41%) 18,390 (3.40%) 16,611 (3.32%) 9,622 (2.57%) 4,125 (1.65%) 1,523 (1.02%) Steam Turbine 5. Performance 33 / 93

34 4. Reheating [1/6] T 3 q RH 5 3 q H 4 Steam generator q H q RH Reheater 4 Turbine HP LP G 2 w P q L A B w T 2 Pump w P 1 5 Condenser q L 6 w T s The steam from boiler flows to the HP turbine where it expands and is exhausted back to the boiler for reheating. The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be improved by reheating on the right hand side of the T-s diagram. An improvement in cycle efficiency from a single reheat is only 2-3%. Although this is not dramatic, it is a useful gain which can be obtained without major modification to the plant. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 34 / 93

35 4. Reheating [2/6] [Exercise 5.2] 재열압력의크기에따른증기터빈출력및사이클효율을비교하시오. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 35 / 93

36 4. Reheating [3/6] h A D B A-B-C: Nonreheat A-B: HP Turbine B-D: Reheater D-E: IP and LP Turbine E 8% 4% C 12% 16% s Steam Turbine 5. Performance 36 / 93

37 4. Reheating [4/6] Schematic of Nuclear Power Plant G nuclear reactor, 2-steam generator, 3-HP turbine, 4-moisture separator, 5-reheater, 6-LP turbine, 7-generator, 8-condenser, 9-condensate pump, 10-LP FWH, 11-LP FWH, 12-BFP, 13-HP FWH, 14-main circulating pump Steam Turbine 5. Performance 37 / 93

38 4. Reheating [5/6] Moisture Separator Reheater To Feedwater Heaters From Main Steam Generator Exciter Main Electrical Generator LP Turbines HP Turbine Steam Dryers To Main Transformer Main Steam Condensate Pump [ Steam Turbine (APR 1400) ] Condensers To Feedwater Heaters 이그림에서잘못그려진부분? Steam Turbine 5. Performance 38 / 93

39 4. Reheating [6/6] Ideal Saturated-Steam Rankine Cycle with MSR (Nuclear) In an ideal Rankine cycle for saturated steam with Moisture separator and reheater, steam expands in the HP turbine to pressure p 4 and is reheated to superheated steam (T 6 <T 3 ). T It is clear that the equivalent Carnot cycle temperature is this case is lower than for the initial cycle. Thus, such steam reheat does not improve the thermal efficiency : Steam separator 5-6: Reheater Practically, however, thermal efficiency is improved by using the MSR because of much less moisture loss in LP turbine caused by an improved LP turbine exhaust quality s Steam Turbine 5. Performance 39 / 93

40 5. Regenerative Feedwater Heating [1/5] T 4 Turbine 3 4 Boiler G a b c d 5 s Pump 1 Condenser If the liquid heating could be eliminated from the boiler, the average temperature for heat addition would be increased greatly and equal to the maximum cycle temperature. In the ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, the water circulates around the turbine casing and flows in the direction opposite to that of the steam flow in the turbine. Because of the temperature difference, heat is transferred to the water from the steam. However, it can be considered that this is a reversible heat transfer process, that is, at each point the temperature of steam is only infinitesimally higher than the temperature of water. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 40 / 93

41 5. Regenerative Feedwater Heating [2/5] At the end of the heating process the water enters the boiler at the saturation temperature. Since the decrease of entropy in the steam expansion line is exactly equal to the increase of entropy in the water heating process, the ideal regenerative Rankine cycle will have the same efficiency as the Carnot cycle. The boiler, in this case, would have no economizer, and the irreversibility during heat addition in the boiler would decrease because of less temperature difference between the heating and heated fluids. Unfortunately, however, this ideal process is practically impossible. Instead, the turbine is furnished with the definite number of heaters to heat feedwater with extracted steam in some stages. This improves the cycle efficiency significantly, even though it remains lower than the Carnot cycle efficiency. This cycle is called as a regenerative cycle. The heat input in the boiler decreases as the final feedwater temperature increases and the heat rejected in the condenser getting smaller as the feedwater is heated higher using the extracted steam. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 41 / 93

42 5. Regenerative Feedwater Heating [3/5] Reversible heat transfer and an infinite number of feedwater heaters would result in a cycle efficiency equal to the Carnot cycle efficiency. The greater the number of feedwater heaters used, the higher the cycle efficiency. This is because if a large number of heaters is used, the process of feedwater heating is more reversible. However, each additional heaters results in lower incremental heat rate improvement because of the decreasing benefit of approaching an ideal regenerative cycle. The economic benefit of additional heaters is limited because of the diminishing improvement in cycle efficiency, increasing capital costs, and turbine physical arrangement limitations. The amount of steam flow into condenser can be reduced dramatically by the employment of regenerative Rankine cycle. The LSB problems, such as water droplet erosion and longer active length, could be solved by the regenerative Rankine cycle, which is made by steam extraction in many turbine stages. Regenerative Rankine cycle also diminish the influence of the LP turbine, which has worst performance. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 42 / 93

43 5. Regenerative Feedwater Heating [4/5] Heat Rate Impact of Alternative Feedwater Heater Configurations HARP means that steam extraction to a heater above reheat point. If HARP is involved in the cycle, the percentage of reheat flow to main steam flow is 75 to 80% instead of 85 to 92% as with the earlier designs without HARP. When HARP is included in the cycle, the cycle efficiency is improved because feedwater temperature becomes higher. Cycle No. of Feedwater Heaters HARP Heat Rate Benefit Single Reheat (4500 psi, 1100F/ 1100F) No No Yes Yes Base Case +0.2% +0.6% +0.7% Double Reheat (4500 psi, 1100F/ 1100F/1100F) No No Yes Yes Base Case +0.3% +0.2% +0.5% Steam Turbine 5. Performance 43 / 93

44 5. Regenerative Feedwater Heating [5/5] Single Reheat Cycle with HARP HARP: Heater Above Reheat Point SSR: Steam Seal Receiver, SPE: Steam Packing Exhaust Steam Turbine 5. Performance 44 / 93

45 Turbine heat rate, Btu/kWh 6. LSB LSB strongly influence the turbine performance The length of the LSB is determined by the number of exhaust flows. In general, the longer LSB, the lower the fullload heat rate LSB = However, under the part-load operation, turbines having longer LSB deteriorate more rapidly in performance Flows, 2400 psia / 1000 F/ 1000F Nominal output 700 MW at 1.5 in.hga Turbine output, MW Steam Turbine 5. Performance 45 / 93

46 Change, % 7. Pressure Drop in Reheater System The total reheater pressure drop includes the pressure drop associated with the cold reheat piping from HP turbine exhaust to the reheater section of the boiler, the reheater section of the boiler itself, and the hot reheat piping from the reheater to the IP turbine intercept valves Turbine Heat Rate A typical design value for total reheater system pressure drop is 10% of the HP turbine exhaust pressure Output For a 1% decrease in reheater pressure drop, the heat rate and output improve approximately 0.1% and 0.3%, respectively Reheater pressure drop, % 20 Steam Turbine 5. Performance 46 / 93

47 Make Up 8. Pressure Drop in Extraction Line [1/2] 10%P Reheater 3%P Main Steam 3%P BFPT BFPT = 82.6% HP IP LP Generator %P 20 3%P 6%P 21 6%P 6%P 6%P 4 6%P SSR Condenser 2.0 in.hga HTR7-3F 10 F HTR6 0F 10 F BFP HTR5 (DA) 0 F HTR4 2F 10 F HTR3 2F 10 F HTR2 5F 10 F HTR1 5F 5 F SPE BFP = 87% Steam Turbine 5. Performance 47 / 93

48 8. Pressure Drop in Extraction Line [2/2] The extraction line pressure drop occurs between the turbine stage and the reheater shell. For extractions not at turbine section exhausts (HP exhaust and IP exhaust), 6% of the turbine stage pressure is a typical design pressure drop. Three percent is the drop across the extraction nozzle, and 3% is for the extraction piping and valves. (Extraction nozzle pressures are typically 2% to 3% lower than the shell pressure. Heater operating pressures are typically 3% to 5% lower than the nozzle pressure.) For extractions at the turbine exhaust section, no extraction nozzle loss occurs and the total pressure drop is 3%. The higher the extraction line pressure drop, the worse the cycle heat rate. For a 2% increase in extraction line pressure drop for all the heaters (from 6% to 8%), the change in output and heat rate would be approximately 0.09% poorer. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 48 / 93

49 9. Makeup Flow The makeup is necessary to offset the steam losses in the cycle and losses in the boiler associated with boiler blowdown and steam soot blowing. Typical amounts of the steam used for makeup are from 1% to 3% of the throttle flow. Boiler blowdown is necessary to maintain proper boiler chemistry. Consideration should also be given to process extractions that involve less than 100% return of condensate. The makeup water is typically supplied to the condenser hot well, increasing the total flow through the heaters and pumps, and therefore must be heated in the feedwater cycle on the way to the boiler. This additional flow results in higher feedwater heater thermal duties and therefore higher extraction flows, and higher pump power requirements. This results in a negative effect on cycle performance. The effect of makeup on net turbine heat rate is approximately 0.4% higher per percent makeup. The effect of makeup on output is approximately 0.2% lower per percent makeup. These values are based on boiler blowdown at saturated conditions at the boiler drum pressure. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 49 / 93

50 10. Air Preheating [1/3] Air Preheater Using Steam Coil Air Heater Air Preheater Furnace Air In Steam Coil Gas Out Gas Recirculating Fan Pulverizer Primary Air Fan Forced Draft Fan Induced Draft Fan Steam Turbine 5. Performance 50 / 93

51 10. Air Preheating [2/3] Steam Turbine 5. Performance 51 / 93

52 10. Air Preheating [3/3] The combustion air is heated by flue gas leaving the boiler prior to entering the boiler in order to improve boiler efficiency by lowering the flue gas exit temperature. Preheating of the combustion air prior to air heater is used to keep the flue gas exit temperature above its dew point temperature. The water dew point occurs at approximately 120F, and the flue gas dew point varies with the quantity of sulfur trioxide in the flue gas. The acid dew point occurs at a higher temperature than the water dew point. If the flue gas temperature falls below the dew point temperature, sulfuric acid which can damage the air heater and flue gas duct is formed. LP extraction steam or hot water from the turbine cycle is often used as the preheating source. These heating sources are readily available and minimize the impact on the turbine cycle because the thermodynamic availability of the supply source is low. The air preheater steam supply is often supplied from the deaerator extraction point which is normally the IP/LP turbine crossover point. If the air preheater has steam coils, crossover steam is used directly and condenses in the preheater. If the air preheater use hot water, saturated water from the deaerator is supplied to the air preheater. The condensate is either pumped back to the deaerator, returned to the condenser, or returned to an intermediate LP feedwater heater point such as flash tank ( 고압증기의드레인을모아감압하여저압의증기, 즉재증발증기를발생시키는탱크 ). Steam Turbine 5. Performance 52 / 93

53 Heat Rate Increase, % 11. Condensate Subcooling Condensate subcooling is the cooling of the cycle condensate in the condenser hot well below the saturation temperature corresponding to the turbine exhaust pressure. Condenser are normally specified to provide condensate at the condenser saturation temperature (0F subcooling). When subcooling occurs, the duty on the first feedwater heat increases, causing the extraction flow to the heater to increase. This decreases the turbine output and increases the turbine heat rate Correction for 5F Condensate Subcooling Throttle Flow, % Steam Turbine 5. Performance 53 / 93

54 12. Spray Flows for Desuperheating [1/2] One method used to control the main steam and reheat steam temperatures is desuperheating by the spray water into steam. The source of spray water is typically boiler feed pump discharge for main steam spray, and an interstage bleed off the boiler feed pump for reheat spray. Alternatively, the spray water is taken from after the final feedwater heater. Both main steam and reheat steam spray flows have an adverse effect on the turbine heat rate when the spray water is taken from the boiler feed pump discharge. The reason for this, in the case of main steam spray, is that the spray flow evaporates in the boiler and becomes part of main steam flow. However, it bypasses the HP feedwater heaters, thus makes the cycle less regenerative (using only five feedwater heaters). In the case of reheat spray, the effect on heat rate is worse because cycle becomes less regenerative and reheat spray flow bypasses the HP turbine and expands only through the reheat turbine section; thus, for the steam flow that is reheat spray, the cycle is nonreheat. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 54 / 93

55 Correction for 1% desuperheating flow, % 12. Spray Flows for Desuperheating [2/2] Load Correction Reheat Steam Desuperheat Heat Rate Correction Reheat Steam Desuperheat Load Correction Main Steam Desuperheat Heat Rate Correction Main Steam Desuperheat Throttle flow, % Steam Turbine 5. Performance 55 / 93

56 13. Removing Top Heaters [1/2] Feedwater heaters may need to be removed from service due to tube leaks. Removing the top heater(s) from service eliminates turbine extraction for these heaters and increases steam flow through the remaining sections of the turbine. For a given throttle flow, turbine output increases because of the increased steam flow and cycle heat input increases because of the lower final boiler feedwater temperature. The turbine and cycle heat rates are poorer when removing the top heaters from service. Some power plants are designed for removal of the top feedwater heaters to increase net plant output. In this case, the boiler has higher heating duty because the boiler produces the steam having same throttle steam conditions with maximum continuous rating under the condition with the lower final feedwater temperature. The turbine would need to be designed to accommodate the higher HP turbine exhaust pressure, increased shaft power requirements in the IP and LP turbines, increased electric power generation, and increased steam flow in the LP turbine last stage. If the turbine specification requires increased output with removal of top heaters, the manufacturer may have to select a larger last stage blade than optimal. For existing units, the steam loading limit on LSB may prohibit increased output. The engineer or operator should check with the turbine manufacturer s literature or contact the manufacturer directly for limitations on operation with heater removed from service. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 56 / 93

57 13. Removing Top Heaters [2/2] [ Effect on turbine cycle performance with removal of top heater from service] Parameter (500 MW, 7 feedwater heaters) HP turbine output, kw IP and LP turbine output, kw Generator and mechanical losses, kw Net turbine output, kw Net turbine heat rate, Btu/kWh Final feedwater temperature, F Turbine cycle heat input, MBtu/h Turbine cycle heat rejection, MBtu/h Steam loading on LSB, lb/h/ft 2 All heaters in service 151, ,583 8, ,316 8, ,179 2,373 14,233 Case Heater 7 out of service 142, ,512 9, ,129 8, ,476 2,574 15,459 When the heater removed from service, the HP turbine output decreases because turbine expansion is reduced as a result of higher exhaust pressure caused by the greater cold reheat flow. However, the output of the IP and LP turbine increases significantly because of increased steam flow. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 57 / 93

58 14. Feedwater Heater Design Parameters [1/6] A closed feedwater is a heater where the feedwater and the heating steam do not directly mix. Open feedwater heaters (deaerators) directly mix the feedwater and the heating steam. A closed feedwater heater may consist of three zones: the desuperheating zone, the condensing zone, and the drain cooling zone. All closed heaters have a condensing zone where the feedwater is heated by the condensation of the heating steam. Feedwater heaters that receive highly superheated steam require a desuperheating zone to reduce the steam temperature to approximately 50F above saturation temperature before it enters the condensing zone. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 58 / 93

59 DCA Temperature (Negative) TTD 14. Feedwater Heater Design Parameters [2/6] A desuperheating zone may not be required for heaters that receive heating steam with less than 100F superheat. Usually, a drain cooler is also included in a feedwater heater to recover the heat contained in the drains before the drains leave the heater. Drain Cooling Zone T SAT Condensing Zone Extraction Desuperheating Zone The feedwater heater performance is determined by DCA (drain cooler approach) and TTD (terminal temperature difference). The DCA is the difference between the temperature of the drains leaving the heater and the temperature of the feedwater entering the heater. The TTD is the difference between the saturation temperature at the operating pressure of the condensing zone and the temperature of the feedwater leaving the heater. Feedwater Inlet Extraction Steam Outlet Feedwater Outlet Extraction Steam Inlet Travel Distance [ Temperature profile for a closed feedwater heater ] Steam Turbine 5. Performance 59 / 93

60 14. Feedwater Heater Design Parameters [3/6] By decreasing the DCA of a heater, cycle efficiency is improved while the heater surface area is increased, resulting in higher capital cost. The practical minimum DCA for an internal drain cooler is 10F. But, the minimum practical limit is 5F for an external drain cooler. The heater may have a negative TTD when the temperature of the feedwater leaving the heater is higher than the saturation temperature of the condensing zone because of the desuperheating zone. If the desuperheating zone of the heater is removed, the feedwater temperature leaving the heater would be less than the saturation temperature, resulting in a positive TTD. The practical lower limit of TTD on a heater without a desuperheating zone is +2F. The negative TTD limit for a heater with a desuperheating zone depends on the amount of superheat in the extraction steam entering the heater. The lower the TTD and DCA, the higher the cycle efficiency and the larger the heater surface area. The more efficient cycle results in a lower heat rate and reduced fuel consumption, while the larger surface area of a heater results in a higher capital cost. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 60 / 93

61 Net turbine heat rate correction factor 14. Feedwater Heater Design Parameters [4/6] TTD, F Heater 6 Heater 7 TTD varied independently from base for each heater [ Effect of TTD on net turbine heat rate Heater 7 (500 MW) cycle, HP heaters 6 and 7 ] Steam Turbine 5. Performance 61 / 93

62 Net turbine heat rate correction factor 14. Feedwater Heater Design Parameters [5/6] TTD for LP heaters 1,2,3, and 4 varied as a group from base TTD, F [ Effect of TTD on net turbine heat rate Heater 7 (500 MW) cycle, LP heaters 1, 2, 3, and 4 ] Steam Turbine 5. Performance 62 / 93

63 Net turbine heat rate correction factor 14. Feedwater Heater Design Parameters [6/6] DCA varied on closed heaters 7, 6, 4, 3, and 2 as a group. External heater 1 drain cooler DCA remained fixed. Heater 5 is the deaerator DCA, F [ Effect of DCA on net turbine heat rate Heater 7 (500 MW) cycle ] Steam Turbine 5. Performance 63 / 93

64 Economic Efficiency Improvement How to best apply the capital funding available on a power plant project is a critical question for the plant designer. The cost basis of technological improvements must be known to make an economic evaluation in today s competitive marketplace. One open literature investigated that the ranking of several technology improvement steps for better plant efficiency. From least cost to highest cost per efficiency improvement, million US$ / % net LHV efficiency, these were. 1) Reducing condenser back pressure, 4.6 2) Increasing to 8 th extraction point feedwater heater, raising feedwater temperature, 5.7 3) Raising main steam temperature and reheat steam temperature, ) Raising main steam temperature, ) Using separate BFPT instead of main turbine driven pump, ) Raising main steam pressure, ) Changing from single to double reheat, ) Using separate BFPT condenser, 60.7 Steam Turbine 5. Performance 64 / 93

65 Heat Balance Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies Factors Affecting Cycle Performance Thermal Kit Data is provided based on a GE steam turbine having output of 412 MW and main steam condition of 2,400 psig/1,000f/,1000f. The turbine is a reheat, tandem compound, four-flow with 26LSB. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 65 / 93

66 Turbine Thermal Kit The turbine thermal kit is provided by the turbine manufacturer and consists of numerous characteristic curves those are used to determine the steam turbine performance for various steam cycle conditions. These curves are used to develop computer programs or to perform hand calculation of steam turbine performance. In addition, the turbine thermal kit includes correction curves that can be used to adjust actual turbine test data to design or guaranteed turbine performance conditions. These correction curves facilitate the comparison of actual performance to guaranteed performance. The turbine manufacturer should supply a complete set of these curves to permit the adjustment of all cycle parameters that may vary between guaranteed conditions and actual operating conditions. These correction curves should be obtained and their use understood prior to conducting the performance test. In addition, turbine test procedures should be developed and agreement reached on their use prior to testing. These procedures should illustrate methods of adjustment to reference conditions. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 66 / 93

67 Turbine Thermal Kit Characteristic curves Extraction stage shell pressures versus flow to the following stage Gland leakage and mechanical losses Expansion lines HP turbine internal efficiency HP turbine expansion line end points Reheat turbine internal efficiency Reheat turbine expansion line end points Correction to expansion line end points Exhaust loss curve Generator losses First-stage shell pressure versus throttle flow Correction curves Throttle pressure correction Throttle temperature correction Reheat pressure drop correction Reheat temperature correction Exhaust pressure correction factors This information can be used to estimate changes in unit performance at off-design conditions. These estimations can be performed by hand. However, some calculations can be lengthy, and if several conditions are being evaluated, a detailed computer model is typically used with this information to predict the performance of the actual turbine purchased. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 67 / 93

68 3. Expansion Lines HP Turbine Turbine expansion lines, drawn on Mollier diagram, are lines depicting the thermal state of the steam that has different thermal state as it expands through the turbine. h T s T p T p B Pressure Drop through Control Valves These lines are developed based on throttle, governing stage, and reheat conditions to determine the steam enthalpy at the various extraction points on the turbine. These lines are used in conjunction with a heat balance and the extraction stage shell pressure curves or constants to establish the extraction pressure at which to read the expansion line enthalpy for a given extraction point in the turbine. AE AE T T p1 ELEP p 1 Exit from Governing Stage Parallel Expansion Line Partial Flow Expansion Line Design Flow Expansion Line In a thermal kit, the expansion line for the HP turbine is given only for the steam expansion downstream of the first stage. h XS p X p X ELEP A pressure drop from turbine throttle conditions of approximately 3% is usually indicated to describe pressure losses between the main stop valve and the HP turbine bowl conditions. h XS [ Expansion lines for HP turbine ] Steam Turbine 5. Performance 68 / 93

69 Available Energy 3. Expansion Lines h p 0 p 1 1 T 0 p 2 2 p 3 3 p 4 4 p 5 5 p 6 6 s Steam Turbine 5. Performance 69 / 93

70 Heat rate 3. Expansion Lines HP Turbine The assumption of 3% is typical for turbine operation in partial arc admission mode. The steam entering the turbine then expands from the HP turbine bowl conditions to the exhaust conditions of the first stage. Valve Loop Basis (True Curve) Mean of Valve Loop Basis Turbine heat balance developed on the basis of this assumption are considered to be on a locusof-valve best points basis. This heat balances describe heat rates assuming an infinite number of small valves having a 3% pressure drop. Valve Point Basis (Locus-of-valve best points) Generator output Actual turbine performance is shown on a valve loop basis heat rate curve. This curve reflects the steam throttling effect as the steam passes through a partially closed steam admission. The throttling pressure drop reduces the available energy of the steam as the throttled admission steam expands across the control stage. Depending on the steam turbine manufacturer, curves of heat rate effect due to control valve position are provided in the thermal kit. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 70 / 93

71 3. Expansion Lines HP Turbine An alternative method of representing turbine heat rate impact due to turbine valve losses at part load is by a mean of valve loop method. This method is an approximation of the heat rate impact illustrated on the valve loop basis curve and represents a mean of the turbine heat rate and passes through the valve loop curve. For units operating with constant throttle pressure in partial arc admission mode, the pressure ratio through the control stage is not constant. As a result of the variation in pressure ratio, the available energy across the stage and the control stage efficiency vary with throttle steam flow and conditions. Therefore, expansion lines at different flow conditions for the control stage are not parallel to one another. However, HP turbine stages downstream of the control stage operate with essentially constant pressure ratio, and their expansion efficiency is essentially constant. Therefore, at lower steam flows, the expansion line of the HP turbine stage group downstream of the control stage is typically described as a straight line that is drawn parallel to the VWO expansion line. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 71 / 93

72 3. Expansion Lines Reheat Turbine The expansion line for the reheat turbine (IP and LP turbines) typically includes a 2% pressure drop between the reheat stop valve inlet and IP turbine bowl to account for the pressure drop across the stop/intercept valves. h m h IV s m s p IV IV p B Pressure Drop Through Intercept Valves, 2% T IV In addition, for combined HP/IP turbines, the steam leakage from the HP turbine is mixed with the hot reheat steam to determine the reheat bowl steam conditions. For Machines with No Leakage Entry h m = h IV s m = s IV The steam then expands through the IP turbine to LP turbine. AE Expansion Line The steam exiting the IP turbine is often conveyed to the LP turbine through a crossover pipe. A 2% allowance for crossover pipe pressure drop is typically included by the turbine manufacturer to determine the LP turbine inlet conditions. h XS p X = 1.5 in.hga p X = 1.0 in.hga ELEP1.5 in.hga ELEP1.0 in.hga ELEP 1.5 in.hga to 1.0 in.hga [ Expansion lines for reheat turbines ] Steam Turbine 5. Performance 72 / 93

73 3. Expansion Lines Reheat Turbine On a Mollier diagram, the turbine expansion line is drawn to a ELEP. ELEP is plotted at the turbine back pressure used as the basis of the heat balance and represents a complete expansion of the steam to the condenser pressure. However, the steam leaving the LP turbine never actually reaches ELEP steam conditions because there is exhaust loss occurring in the LP exhaust hood. The actual exhaust condition, referred to as UEEP, is calculated as the sum of the ELEP and the exhaust loss. Since the stages upstream are unaffected by the exhaust loss, the expansion line describing the steam condition in the IP and LP turbine stages is drawn to the LP turbine ELEP. This permits determination of the steam condition for the reheat turbine extractions. The expansion line for the IP turbine is essentially a straight line. However, the expansion line for the LP turbine exhibits a curvature or varying slope. This variation in the expansion line represents efficiency degradation caused by moisture loss. Steam Turbine 5. Performance 73 / 93

74 HP Turbine Internal Efficiency, % 4. HP Turbine Internal Efficiency The HP turbine internal efficiency represents the overall efficiency of it and is applied to the calculation of the available energy from the turbine throttle conditions to the HP turbine exhaust pressure. A composite of the effect of throttle valve pressure drop, first-stage efficiency, and HP turbine stage group efficiency are represented by this curve. Since the curve is drawn using the assumption of locusof-valve best point, the curve does not reflect the throttling losses of partially open control valves for flows above the throttling flow ratio of the first admission. These throttling losses are small at high load because of the relatively small portion of flow that is throttled compared to the flow that is passing through the valves those are fully open. However, as load is decreased, a greater portion of turbine flow becomes throttled, further impacting turbine efficiency This curve is on a valve best point basis. TFR = (throttle flow at any steam conditions)/ (VWO throttle flow at same steam conditions) Apply the efficiency from this curve to the available energy from the turbine stop valves to the HP turbine exhaust. Break in curve is first admission point, throttling control occurs at all lower throttle flow ratios. For off-rated steam conditions use equivalent TFR. TFR eq Off rated Design Throttle Flow Ratio (TFR) flow flow ( p / ) ( p / ) rated off rated [ HP turbine internal efficiency, GE ] Steam Turbine 5. Performance 74 / 93

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