External Environment and Indoor Microclimate
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1 External Environment and Indoor Microclimate Michal Kabrhel 1, Hana Dolezilkova 1 1 Department of Microenvironmental and Building Services Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague Corresponding kabrhel@fsv.cvut.cz SUMMARY The article deals with air parameters in building exterior and interior. External air temperature is the most important air parameter in the exterior. The temperature is influenced by local area parameters. The annual external air temperature measurement in city centre and periphery in Central Europe is presented. The article also contains multizone modeling and simulation of indoor air quality during different boundary conditions (external environment), various occupations of interior and different types of ventilation and ventilation air amount. INTRODUCTION Indoor environmental quality depends on technical equipment ability adjust external variable parameters of entering factors to parameters not such much variable. External parameters correspond to climate region and local area quality. The urban environment quality is different in the city centre, suburb and surrounding intact areas. The differences are in the air quality, air temperature as well air humidity. Indoor air quality and pollutant concentration is significant for human health because people spend most of their time in buildings. The aim for heat losses lowing directed to limiting natural ventilation by windows. Tight windows have insufficient infiltration; they are unsuitable from the hygienic point of view. It leads to pollutant concentration and relative humidity enhancement, mould reproduction and environment not corresponding to human organism. So it is necessary to ensure mechanical ventilation during people presence. Indoor air quality depends on many factors, especially on: outdoor air quality, air amount per person or ventilation rate, ventilation plant, amount of air pollutants. Carbon dioxide is the most important indoor pollutant whether the pollutant source is presented only by people. The study is focused on some external and internal air parameters. METHODS The external air temperature is the basic parameter with direct influence to the building energy demand. The external air temperature is fluctuated and local temperature change especially depends especially on the surface properties. The solar reflection and absorption is markedly depended on a surface colour. Simply we can say that the darker surface increases energy absorption and, in dependency on a thermal capacity, the energy is accumulated. The solar radiation is a thermal energy source, especially direct part of the global solar radiation. This effect causes warming up of surfaces with solar radiation absorption and thermal conduction to the deeper layers and the surfaces radiate thermal energy during a period with lower solar intensity with a time delay. The asphalt roads in zone with people or pedestrian zones with usually black colour are the biggest accumulators of thermal energy. The building
2 operation is the next energy source in the city centres and the building heat losses are becoming energy gains for local environment. Next technology equipment operation in a relationship with buildings and transport are not negligible. Technical equipments provide stable parameters of the internal environment and warm up or cool down environment. The cars produce the thermal energy in generally too. Differences between climate in cities and countryside are evident from mentioned reasons. Measurement The external air temperature increasing is significant especially during summer period in the city centres in Central Europe conditions. While the temperature increasing during winter is not so significant trouble-it decrease energy consumption for heating, warmer summer period is negative and the active cooling systems must be installed. The air temperature change is simple, but higher temperature difference increase energy consumption. Negative effect can be supported by unsuitable building design with high glass ratio and without passive shading or low energy cooling systems. a) b) Figure 1. External air temperature measurement: a) City plan b) Mean deviation-month temperature city centre-periphery Urban heat islands measurement was already done in countries with hot summer (temperature increases 3 C) and with mild winter where summer effect is significant. Long time measurement of the external air temperature was done in Prague during year 25 and partly in year 26. The temperatures were measured in the city centre, suburb and periphery. a) b) Figure 2. External air temperature: a) Winter b) Summer (influence of direct solar radiation)
3 Outdoor air quality influence on ventilation air amount Outdoor air quality has an influence 16 on ventilation air amount for 14 exhausting pollutants. The worse 12 outdoor air quality means the more 1 ventilation air amount. Carbon 8 dioxide is the most important 6 pollutant in interior. Ventilation air 4 amount dependence on outdoor 2 carbon dioxide concentration shows Figure 3. The relation is exponential. The difference between the country (33 ppm) and large city (45 ppm) for one person is small, but for whole building the difference will be large. ventilationair amount [m 3.h -1 ] outdoor CO 2 concentration [ppm] 1 person 2 persons 3 persons 4 persons 5 persons Figure 3. Ventilation air amount dependence 5 Model of the exterior microclimate Many models were developed for time acceptable parametric solving city microclimate in history. But many of them were applicable only in the area of their origin. Individual variables was not purify from constants derived from the measurements. CTTC (Cluster thermal time constant) model is the most hopeful from the unit of parametrical models. Model is based on the Hoffman model. The principle of the model is split the urban area to separate clusters and parameters calculate separately in the cluster with influence of surface properties, solar radiation, and convection to the climate. Fig. 4 CTTC model (urban climate simulations)
4 Model of carbon dioxide concentration This part is about modeling and simulation of five different alternations of ventilation of two-rooms flat in Contam 2.4. This program helps to specify airflow infiltration, exfiltration, flowing among particular rooms during natural ventilation and mechanical ventilation, wind pressure on building facade. It is possible to count pollutant concentration on the base of knowledge of the quantity airflow and pollutant production. Optimal air distribution is considered. The plan of the observed flat shows Figure 5. The detected indoor pollutant is carbon dioxide. It was counted with outdoor carbon dioxide concentration 35 ppm and respiration production 2 l.h -1 per person. Living room volume is 67m 3 and bedroom volume is 31,2m 3. The flat was studied in two alternations: A - which is occupied by two persons and B - which is occupied by three persons due to figure 6. Carbon dioxide concentration was observed in living spaces (a living room and a bedroom), where occupants spent most of their time. Figure 5. The plan of the flat a) b) Figure 6. Space occupation a) for flat A, b) for flat B Five ventilation alternations were selected for ventilation assessment. Alternations characterize not only hygienic rules but also ventilation used in current buildings. Alternation no. 1 ventilation according to ventilation air amount per person due to Pettenkofer`s rule 25 m 3.h -1 per person Alternation no. 2 hot-air heating and ventilation with circulation (75 % circulation air) Alternation no. 3 exhausting sanitary equipment according to DIN with,45 h -1 ventilation rate Alternation no. 4 infiltration by untight windows, flow coefficient i L =1,4*1-4 m 2 s -1 Pa -,67 and exhausting sanitary equipment according to ČSN Alternation no. 5 infiltration by tight windows, flow coefficient i L =,1*1-4 m 2 s -1 Pa -,67 and exhausting sanitary equipment according to ČSN It is considered: the air flows into interior in spite of tight windows, none windows opening during people presence (difficult behavior estimating). RESULTS External environment The solution of oversized warming is decreasing of insolate surfaces absorption. Green fields could be use for shading or moisture production (evaporation). The wind has the high influence to the thermal situation in the city, flow change temperature in given area. Generally, climate changes will increase energy consumption because energy for cooling is more expensive then energy for heating. Give a definition of maximal impact of building to neighbourhood could be set up. This parameter creates restriction for building with high
5 glazing ratio and with active cooling systems. Environment friendly buildings are result of these parameters. Indoor microclimate Figures 7-1 show carbon dioxide concentration runs Figure 7. CO 2 concentration runs for living-room A Figure 8. CO 2 concentration runs for bedroom A Legend for figure 7 and 8: Alternation no. 1 Pettenkofer`s rule 25 m 3.h -1 per person Alternation no. 2 hot-air heating and ventilation with circulation (75 % circulation air) Alternation no. 3 exhausting sanitary equipment according to DIN s,45 h -1 ventilation rate Alternation no. 4 infiltration by untight windows and exhausting sanitary equipment Alternation no. 5 infiltration by tight windows and exhausting sanitary equipment Requirement
6 The results show, that CO 2 concentration run is similar to interior occupation, zone volume and ventilation air amount. Increasing time of concentration to constant value and decreasing time of concentration to ventilation air concentration depend on room volume, pollutant production and ventilation air amount Figure 9. CO 2 concentration runs for living-room B Figure 1. CO 2 concentration runs for bedroom B Legend for figure 9 and 1: Alternation no. 1 Pettenkofer`s rule 25 m 3.h -1 per person Alternation no. 2 hot-air heating and ventilation with circulation (75 % circulation air) Alternation no. 3 exhausting sanitary equipment according to DIN s,45 h -1 ventilation rate Alternation no. 4 infiltration by untight windows and exhausting sanitary equipment Alternation no. 5 infiltration by tight windows and exhausting sanitary equipment Requirement
7 No rule for indoor air quality is in the Czech Republic. Maximal concentration 12 ppm was required in this study, this value is according to EN CR 1752 CEN for class C. The worst alternation is ventilation by infiltration with tight windows (no. 5). Also alternation no. 4 is very bad. Maximal required carbon dioxide concentration is overstepped more than 9 % time of people presence. The best alternation is the first alternation. Alternation no. 2 is suitable only for living room in flat A. Maximal required carbon dioxide concentration is overstepped more than 9 % time of people presence in bedrooms, maximum is 25 ppm. Required concentration is also overstepped in alternation no. 3, but it is better than ventilation by infiltration. DISCUSSION The weather forecast is possible with limited precision only because the border conditions are too much complicated. Speaking about cities scale, areas with potential unsuitable temperature change can be calculated from the city surface parameters. Internal microclimate quality must be arranged without influence on the local exterior conditions. For the reduction of unsuitable building design and building situating tools must be created. The tool can show energy requests to buildings situated in the city centre or in the periphery. The results show, that CO 2 concentration runs is similar to interior occupation and ventilation air amount. Simulation in program Contam 2.4 showed, that necessary air amount per person for ensuring maximal CO 2 concentration 12 ppm is 25 m 3.h -1 per person. It was established that, Pettenkofer`s rule is valid. For good indoor air quality, we should design ventilation air amount due to this rule 25 m 3.h -1 per person. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research has been supported by Research Plan CEZ MSM REFERENCES 1. Williamson, T. J., Erell, E.: Thermal performance simulation and the urban microclimate: Measurements and prediction. Proceedings of the 7th international IBPSA conference Building Simulation, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil:21 2. Swaid, H., Hoffman, M. E. : Prediction of urban air temperature variations using the analytical CTTC model. Energy and Buildings, Volume 14, Issue 4, (199). 3. Kabrhel, M.: Thermal Storage in Buildings Energy System. Ph.D. Work, Czech Technical University, Faculty od Civil Engineering, Impacts of Europes Changing Climate. European Environment Agency (EEA). Technical report. Copenhagen 24. ISBN ASHRAE Application Handbook 1999 SI. ASHRAE Software Contam Dolezilkova, H.: Optimization of indoor environment (Optimalizace vnitrniho prostredi), CTU in Prague. 26
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