The atmosphere. The atmosphere is layered. Inversions affect air quality 3/2/2015. The sun influences weather and climate
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1 The atmosphere Chapter 13 Atmosphere Absorbs radiation and moderates climate Transports and recycles water and nutrients Human activity is now changing the amount of some gases CO 2, methane (CH 4 ), ozone (O 3 ) The atmosphere is layered Troposphere Bottommost layer (11 km [7 miles]) Responsible for Earth s weather The air gets colder with altitude Stratosphere km (7 31 mi) above sea level Ozone layer blocks UV radiation The sun influences weather and climate An enormous amount of energy from the sun hits Earth 70% is absorbed by water, evaporating the water Air near Earth s surface is warm and moist Convective circulation Less dense, warmer air rises Creates vertical currents Convection influences weather and climate Inversions affect air quality Thermal inversion A layer of cool air forms beneath warm air Inversions trap pollutants in cities surrounded by mountains Circulation systems produce climate patterns Convective currents contribute to climatic patterns Hadley cells Convective cells near the equator Surface air warms, rises, and expands Causing heavy rainfall near the equator Giving rise to tropical rainforests Currents heading north and south are dry Giving rise to deserts at 30 degrees Ferrel cells and polar cells Lift air and create precipitation at 60 degrees latitude north and south Conditions at the poles are dry 1
2 Global wind patterns Coriolis effect: the apparent north south deflection of air currents of the convective cells Results in curving global wind patterns Global wind patterns helped sailing ships travel the oceans Large-scale convective cells create global patterns of moisture and wind Some pollution is from natural sources Humans can make impacts worse Farming, grazing cause erosion, desertification Fire suppression leads to worse fires Fires generate soot and gases Winds send huge amounts of dust aloft Even across oceans Volcanoes release particulate matter, sulfur dioxide We create outdoor air pollution Point sources Specific spots where large quantities of pollutants are discharged (e.g., power plants) Non-point sources More diffuse, consisting of many small, widely spread sources (e.g., automobiles) Primary pollutants Directly harmful or can react to form harmful substances (e.g., soot and carbon monoxide) Secondary pollutants Form when primary pollutants react with constituents of the atmosphere Residence time The time a pollutant stays in the atmosphere The Clean Air Act addresses pollution The Clean Air Act (1963, amended in 1970, 1990) Funds research for pollution control Sets standards for air quality, limits on emissions Allows citizens to sue parties violating the standards Introduced a cap-and-trade program for sulfur dioxide The EPA sets standards for emissions and pollutants States monitor air quality Develop, implement, and enforce regulations Submit plans to the EPA for approval The EPA takes over enforcement if plans are inadequate 2
3 Agencies monitor emissions State and local agencies monitor and report to the EPA emissions of six major pollutants Carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, particulate matter, lead Carbon monoxide (CO) Colorless, odorless gas Produced primarily by incomplete combustion of fuel From vehicles and engines, industry, waste combustion, residential wood burning Prevents blood hemoglobin from binding with oxygen Emissions Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) Colorless gas with a strong odor Coal emissions from electricity generation, industry Can form acid deposition Nitrogen oxides (NO x ) Formed when nitrogen and oxygen react at high temperatures in engines Vehicles, electrical utilities, industrial combustion Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Carbon-containing chemicals emitted by vehicles and a wide range of solvents Can react to produce a number of secondary pollutants, as occurs in urban smog Emissions Particulate matter Suspended solid or liquid particles Damages respiratory tissue when inhaled Primary pollutants: dust and soot Secondary pollutants: sulfates and nitrates From dust and combustion processes Lead In gasoline and industrial metal smelting Bioaccumulates and damages the nervous system Banned in gasoline in developed countries, but not in developing countries We have reduced U.S. air pollution Total emissions of the six monitored pollutants have declined 72% since the Clean Air Act of 1970 Scrubbers Chemically convert or physically remove pollutants before they leave smokestacks Catalytic converters 3
4 Air quality has improved Criteria pollutants Especially great threats to humans Carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, lead, and all nitrogen dioxides and tropospheric ozone EPA compiles data for these pollutants into a list called the Air Quality Index (AQI) Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) Foul-smelling red-brown gas Contributes to smog and acid deposition Air quality has improved (cont d) Tropospheric ozone (O 3 ) is a colorless gas A secondary pollutant created from sunlight, heat, nitrogen oxides, volatile carboncontaining chemicals A major component of photochemical smog Participates in reactions that harm tissues and cause respiratory problems The pollutant that most frequently exceeds EPA standards Air pollution is getting worse in industrializing nations Outdoor pollution is getting worse in developing nations Polluting factories and power plants, increasing numbers of cars Nations emphasize economic growth, not pollution control People burn traditional fuels (wood and charcoal) China has the world s worst air pollution Coal burning, more cars, power plants, factories Causes over 300,000 premature deaths/year China is reducing pollution (closing factories, using cleaner fuels, raising efficiency standards, etc.) Industrial Smog Burning coal or oil releases CO 2, CO, soot, mercury, sulfur Sulfuric acid is formed Regulations in developed countries reduced smog Coal-burning industrializing countries face health risks due to lax pollution control 4
5 Photochemical smog Photochemical smog Forms when sunlight drives a chemical reaction between primary pollutants and atmospheric compounds Ozone, NO 2, and many other compounds are formed Appears as a brownish haze Formed in hot, sunny cities surrounded by mountains Morning traffic releases NO and VOCs Irritates eyes, noses, and throats Ozone depletion Ozone in the lower stratosphere absorbs the sun s ultraviolet (UV) radiation UV radiation can damage tissues and DNA Ozone-depleting substances Human-made chemicals that destroy ozone Halocarbons Human-made compounds made from hydrocarbons with added chlorine, bromine, or fluorine 5
6 We addressed ozone depletion with the Montreal Protocol Montreal Protocol (1987) 196 nations agreed to cut CFC production in half by 1998 Industry shifted to safer alternative chemicals We stopped the Antarctic ozone hole from getting worse It can serve as a model for international environmental cooperation The ozone layer has stopped growing Acid deposition The deposition of acid, or acid-forming, pollutants from the air onto Earth s surface From automobiles, electric utilities, industrial facilities Acid rain Precipitation containing acid Includes rain, snow, sleet, hail Atmospheric deposition The wet or dry deposition of pollutants (mercury, nitrates, organochlorines, etc.) Burning fossil fuels produces acid rain ph of precipitation in the US Regions of greatest acidification are downwind of heavily industrialized sources of pollution 6
7 Impacts of acid deposition Nutrients are leached from topsoil Soil chemistry is changed Toxic metal ions (aluminum, zinc, etc.) are converted into soluble forms that pollute water Affects surface water and kills fish Damages crops and other plants Acid deposition Buildings and monuments Limestone and marble are destroyed by air pollution at an alarming rate Corroding steel in reinforced concrete weakens buildings, roads, and bridges The Clear Air Act (1990) established an emissions trading program for sulfur dioxide Benefits outweighed costs 40:1 Indoor air pollution In workplaces, schools, and homes Causes greater health effects than outdoor pollution The poor in developing nations burn wood, charcoal, dung, and crop wastes In buildings with little to no ventilation The most dangerous indoor pollutants in developed nations Cigarette smoke Radon A radioactive gas resulting from natural decay of rock, soil, or water that can seep into buildings Kills 21,000 people per year in the U.S. New homes are being built to be radon resistant 7
8 Many substances pollute indoor air VOCs The most diverse group of indoor air pollutants Released by everything from plastics and oils to perfumes and paints; new car smell Some are released in large amounts when new Formaldehyde leaking from pressed wood and insulation irritates mucous membranes and induces skin allergies Sick-building syndrome A sickness produced by indoor pollution in which the specific cause is not identified We can enhance indoor air quality Keys to alleviating indoor air pollution include: Using low-toxicity materials Monitoring air quality Keeping rooms clean Providing adequate ventilation People in developed nations can: Limit use of plastics and treated wood Limit exposure to toxic substances (pesticides, etc.) Test homes and offices for radon and mold Use CO detectors Keep rooms and air ducts clean and free of mildew and other biological pollutants 8
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