Energy Principles. AJ A.J. Both Dept. of Environmental Sciences Rutgers University
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1 Energy Principles AJ A.J. Both Dept. of Environmental Sciences Rutgers University
2 Preamble Energy can exist in different forms Energy can be transferred from one form to another Each energy transition has its own efficiency Energy transfer should only be evaluated within a system defined by boundaries The systems view has significantly expanded in recent years (global warming/climate change)
3 Converting energy to work or heat
4 Typical (overall) conversion efficiencies Incandescent lamp 5-10% High Pressure e Sodu Sodium lamp 25-30% Gasoline combustion engine 25-30% Diesel engine 35-40% Solar panel (PV) 10-20% Wind generator 20-35% Fuel cell 35-50% Coal fired power plant 25-35% Gas fired power plant 35-45% Nuclear power plant 30-35% Solar thermal collector 2-30% Natural gas fired heater 80-95%
5 Energy Quantities
6 Btu measurements and quantities Amount in Btu Thousand Btu (10 3 ) Typical measurement Space heater output (1/hr) Heat energy of a fuel (1/unit) Million Btu (10 6 ) Per capita energy consumption of some countries (1/yr) Billion Btu (10 9 ) Energy consumption of a US office park Trillion Btu (10 12 ) Energy consumption of all railroads (US or Europe) Quadrillion Btu (10 15 ) Energy consumption of an (Quads) entire country (1/yr)
7 SI measurements and quantities Prefix Symbol Factor Example micro μ 10-6 microns, visible wavelength milli m 10-3 ma, current flow from a single PV cell kilo k 10 3 kwh, home energy consumption Mega M 10 6 MW, output of a wind turbine Giga G 10 9 GW, output t of a power plant Tera T TW, world s power plants Peta P PJ, annual energy consumption by US railroads Exa E EJ, annual energy consumption by an entire country
8 Energy Conversions
9 Several useful conversion factors From: To: Multiply by Btu J 1, Btu cal 252 Btu/h W (J/s) hp (mech) W hp (boiler) Btu/h 33,445.7 ft m gal L 3.79 lb kg 0.454
10 Temperature conversions and scales ºC =(ºF 32) 5/9 ºF =9/5 ºC +32 K=ºC
11 Second Law of Thermodynamics: Heat flows from a hot to a cold object A given amount of heat can not be changed completely into energy to do work In other words: If you put a certain amount of energy into a system, you can not get all of it out as work. YOU CAN T BREAK EVEN!! (No perpetuum mobile, perpetual motion )
12 Heating values Lower heating value (LHV): amount of heat released during combustion without including the latent heat of vaporization Higher heating value (HHV): amount of heat released during combustion including the latent heat of condensation [MJ/kg] HHV LHV H NG propane gasoline diesel coal biomass
13 Heating fuels Fuel Typical Conversion Efficiency (%)* Heat Value Electricity ,413 Btu/kWh Natural gas** 80 1,000 Btu/ft 3 Propane 80 91,000 Btu/gal No. 2 fuel oil ,000 Btu/gal No. 6 fuel oil (pre-heat) ,000 Btu/gal Hard coal (anthracite) 65 13,000 Btu/lb Soft coal (bituminous) 65 12,000 Btu/lb Hard wood (dry)*** 65 7,000 Btu/lb Wood chips 60 3,800 Btu/lb * Higher efficiencies are reported for some high-efficiency models Higher efficiencies are reported for some high-efficiency models ** 100 ft 3 of natural gas = 1 therm *** 20% moisture: oak ~ 26,000,000 Btu/cord (8 by 4 by 4 feet)
14 Energy content and pricing Switchgrass $ $/Ton $9.32
15 On-farm grown biofuels Crop Yield (gal of ethanol per acre; good soils) Energy ratio (Q in :Q out ) Sugar cane :8 Miscanthus 800-1,800* 1:6 Switchgrass 1, * 1:4 Soybean (biodiesel) 1:3 Rape seed (biodiesel) 1:3 Sugar beet :2 Corn :1.3 *Can be grown on marginal soils
16 Electrical Energy 12,000 V 240,000 V 8,000 V 240/120 V
17 Electric circuits: useful equations V = I R (Ohm s Law) P = V I = I 2 R V = voltage [V] volt meter I = current [A] ammeter R = resistance [Ω] ohmmeter P = power [W] watt meter Energy = Power Time [J] Electric bill: kwh = (P/1000) T(with T in[hrs]) Electric bill: kwh = (P/1000) T (with T in [hrs]) (1 kwh = 3,600,000 Joules)
18 DC versus AC Direct current V, I + _ load one directional time Alternating current VI V, max two directional 360 ~ load time one cycle
19 Alternating current: V i = V max sin(θ) V i = instantaneous voltage θ = phase angle Frequency: number of cycles per second unit: [Hz] (60 Hz in the US) Effective (apparent) voltage and current: V rms = V max / 2 I rms = I max / 2
20 Electric generator (AC) ac
21 Mechanical Energy
22 2-stroke gasoline engine
23 4-stroke gasoline engine Fuel injection 1. Intake 2. Compression 3. Expansion 4. Exhaust
24 Diesel engine
25 Combined cycle power plant
26 Solar Energy Muehlhausen, Germany, 10 MW 19.3% efficient!
27
28 Impact of solar altitude on surface radiation Sun Sun 342 W/m 2 45º 342 W/m 2 cos(45º) = W/m 2 1 m m W/m 2 = cos(45 ) 342 W/m 2
29 Solar altitude (α) by time of day For 40º N latitude (NJ EcoComplex) sinα = sin(l)sin(δ) + cos(l)cos(δ)cos(h) 90 L = latitude 80 δ = declination angle h = hour angle 50 s) Sola ar altitude (degree (degrees) For 5º N latitude Solar altitude ( Winter solstice Equinox Summer solstice Time of the day (hr) Winter solstice Equinox Summer solstice Time of the day (hr)
30 Cross section of PV cell Photograph courtesy Jack Rabin, NJAES
31
32 HAWT Wind Energy
33
34 Classes of wind power density 10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft) Class Density Upper speed Density Upper speed W/m 2 m/s (mph) W/m 2 m/s (mph) (9.8) (12.5) (11.5) (14.3) (12.5) (15.7) (13.4) (16.8) (14.3) (17.9) (15.7) (19.7) (21.1) (26.6) Source:
35 Wind speed and power u/u = α R (z/z R ) α = 1/7 u = wind speed z = height R = reference eee Typical reference heights: ht 10, 30, 50 m
36 Calculating wind turbine power E kin = ½ m v 2 [J]. Mass flow rate m = v A ρ [kg/s] Power = energy/time [W = J/s] Power = ½ ρ A v 3 C p N g N gb [W] C p = coefficient of performance 0.59 max (Betz limit) 0.35 for a good design N g = generator efficiency (50-80%) N gb = gearbox/bearing g efficiency ( 95%) Wind power density: P/A = ½ ρ v 3 [W/m 2 ]
37 NJ wind resources (30 m) Most viable wind generation sites: At the shore Off-shore Atlantic City
38 Thank You!!! Questions?
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