Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Student Manual

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1 United States Environmental Protection Agency Offi ce of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (5201G) Superfund Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Student Manual

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3 Course Introduction INTRODUCTION TO GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATIONS presented by Tetra Tech NUS, Inc. for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Environmental Response Team ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE TRAINING PROGRAM (ERTP) U.S. EPA OSWER OSRTI ERT United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (Superfund) Office of Superfund Remediation and Technical Innovation Environmental Response Team ERTP TRAINING COURSES Are offered tuition-free for environmental and response personnel from federal, state, and local agencies Vary in length from one to five days Are conducted at EPA Training Centers and at other locations throughout the United States Groundwater Investigations 1

4 Course Introduction ERTP TRAINING COURSES Course Descriptions, Class Schedules, and Registration Information are available at: COURSE MATERIALS Student Registration Card Student Evaluation Form Course Agenda Disk with Course Materials Student Workbook FACILITY INFORMATION Parking Classroom Restrooms Water fountains, snacks, refreshments Lunch Telephones Emergency telephone numbers Alarms and emergency exits Groundwater Investigations 2

5 Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Groundwater Hydrology "The science of hydrology would be relatively simple if water were unable to penetrate below the earth's surface." Harold E. Thomas Lecture Objectives Define hydrogeology Discuss the hydrologic cycle Define basic aquifers Identify common types of groundwater contamination Present case study Groundwater Investigations 1

6 Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Groundwater Hydrology "Ground-water hydrology is the subdivision of the science of hydrology that deals with the occurrence, movement, and quality of water beneath the earth s surface." Ralph C. Heath Hydrologic Cycle Hydrologic Cycle Groundwater Investigations 2

7 Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Groundwater Discharge Unconfined Aquifer Confined Aquifer Groundwater Investigations 3

8 Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Perched Aquifer Aquifer Properties Groundwater Aquifers Primary Openings Unconsolidated Aquifer Material Poorly sorted, stratified, sands and gravels Groundwater Investigations 4

9 Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Groundwater Aquifers Secondary Openings Groundwater in Caverns Groundwater Aquifers Secondary Openings Limestone, Indiana Fractured Sandstone Groundwater Contaminants Groundwater Investigations 5

10 Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Groundwater Contaminants Petroleum products are a common groundwater contaminant. Referred to as a Light Nonaqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL) Groundwater Contaminants Chlorinated solvents are another common groundwater contaminant. Referred to as a Dense Non-aqueous Phase Liquid (DNAPL) Groundwater Contaminants Acid mine run off, Tinto River, Spain Photo Credit - Carol Stoker/NASA Groundwater Investigations 6

11 Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Groundwater Investigation Case Study Fisherville Mill, Grafton, MA Fisherville Mill Aerial Photograph Mill Building Blackstone Canal Bridge Old Blackstone Canal Blackstone River Rail Road Image Courtesy of USGS Fisherville Mill Site Investigation Site investigation initiated because of the discovery of oil in the former Blackstone Canal Image Courtesy of USGS Groundwater Investigations 7

12 Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Fisherville Mill, Grafton, MA Oil release discovered in Old Blackstone Canal Looking north at Blackstone Canal Bridge Looking south Fisherville Mill Site Investigation Initial investigation for the source of the oil release discovered high concentrations of a chlorinated solvent (TCE) north of mill building Boiler USTs Boring with high TCE concentrations Image Courtesy of USGS Fisherville Mill Site Investigation Initial TCE treatment system destroyed in 1990 fire Groundwater Investigations 8

13 Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Fisherville Mill Site Investigation Position of TCE plume during the winter months Blackstone River Image Courtesy of USGS Fisherville Mill Site Investigation Position of TCE plume during the summer months Image Courtesy of USGS Fisherville Mill Site Investigation TCE plume affected during the summer months by pumping of a municipal well (GP#3) Pumping well GP#3 Image Courtesy of USGS Groundwater Investigations 9

14 Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Fisherville Mill Site Investigation Cross Section A A' A' A Image Courtesy of USGS Fisherville Mill Site Investigation Cross Section A A' Ambient Flow A A 300 GP#3 SG-7 7/16/01-Ambient Groundwater Discharge Point 290 Bend in section Groundwater flow Seep SG-6 DP-4A SW-2A PA-1A MW MW LEGEND Water Table Potentiometric Surface Groundwater Flow feet Fisherville Mill Site Investigation Cross Section A A' GP#3 Pumping A A 300 GP#3 SG-7 10/25/01 Pumping 290 Seep no flow Bend in section SG-6 SW-4A DP-4A SW-2A PZ-1A MW-100 MW Groundwater flow LEGEND Water Table Potentiometric Surface Groundwater Flow feet Groundwater Investigations 10

15 Introduction to Groundwater Investigations Fisherville Case Study Temporary dam built in stream to create a hydraulic head. The hydraulic head influenced the flow of groundwater to keep the TCE plume away from GP#3. Temporary dam Fisherville Remediation TCE source was degraded using a oxidation-reduction remediation method. The oxidizer was sodium permanganate. Sodium Permanganate tanks (above) and injection well (left) Great Sand Dunes National Park, Colorado Groundwater Investigations 11

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17 Drilling Methods Drilling Methods Uses for Borings and Wells Lithology "Ground truthing Remediation Water supply Monitoring Hydraulic properties Selection Criteria Geologic Region - Type of rock formation - Depth drilling Type of pollutant Location Availability Cost Groundwater Investigations 1

18 Drilling Methods Drilling Methods Cable tool Hollow-stem auger Rotasonic Direct-push technology Mud rotary Air rotary Cable Tool Drilling Method DRILLING Cable Tool Drilling Method BAILING Groundwater Investigations 2

19 Drilling Methods Cable Tool Drill Rig Cable Tool: Advantages Good sample recovery Good delineation of water-bearing zones during drilling Highly mobile Good drilling in most formations Inexpensive Cable Tool: Disadvantages Slow Requires driving casing in unconsolidated formations Groundwater Investigations 3

20 Drilling Methods Hollow-Stem Augers Hollow-Stem Auger Drilling Groundwater Investigations 4

21 Drilling Methods 14 Power Head Groundwater Investigations 5

22 Drilling Methods Split-Spoon Samplers Underground Utility Locations Groundwater Investigations 6

23 Drilling Methods Air Monitoring Auger Connection Split-Spoon Sampling Groundwater Investigations 7

24 Drilling Methods Split-Spoon Sampling Split-Spoon Sampling Split-Spoon Sampling Groundwater Investigations 8

25 Drilling Methods Groundwater Investigations 9

26 Drilling Methods Groundwater Investigations 10

27 Drilling Methods Hollow-Stem Auger: Advantages Highly mobile No drilling fluid required Problems of hole caving minimized Soil sampling relatively easy Hollow-Stem Auger: Disadvantages Cannot be used in consolidated formations Limited depth capability (~150 feet) Cross contamination of permeable zones is possible Limited casing diameter Groundwater Investigations 11

28 Drilling Methods Direct Push Technology Direct Push Technology (DPT) STRINGPOT MEASURES DEPTH PERCUSSION PROBING MACHINE SPECIAL DRIVE CAP SENSING PROBE MEASURES CONDUCTIVITY Geoprobe Groundwater Investigations 12

29 Drilling Methods Geoprobe Geoprobe Geoprobe Groundwater Investigations 13

30 Drilling Methods 40 DPT Advantages No drill cuttings Very accessible Good water sampling - Hydropunch Quick setup Small diameter well installation DPT Disadvantages Limited depth capability Cannot penetrate cobbles or rock Sample volumes may be limited Groundwater Investigations 14

31 Drilling Methods Cone Penetrometer HYDRAULIC RAMS CONE PENETROMETER PROBE CONE PENETROMETER ROD Cone Penetrometer Cone Penetrometer: Advantages Fast lithologic identification By using ROST systems, possible realtime detection of petroleum in soil Groundwater Investigations 15

32 Drilling Methods Cone Penetrometer: Disadvantages Need reference boring for accurate lithologic correlation No sample collection Cannot be used in consolidated sediments Limited depth capability (~150 feet) Rotasonic Drilling Rotasonic Drilling OSCILLATOR COUNTER- ROTATING WEIGHTS HIGH FREQUENCY SINUSOIDAL FORCE DRILL BIT ROTATES AND VIBRATES STANDING HARMONIC WAVE IN DRILL PIPE Groundwater Investigations 16

33 Drilling Methods Rotasonic Drilling Method Groundwater Investigations 17

34 Drilling Methods Rotasonic Samples Groundwater Investigations 18

35 Drilling Methods Rotasonic Samples Rotasonic: Advantages Fast (20 shallow boreholes/day) Versatile (easily penetrates cobbly materials) Drills into consolidated and unconsolidated material Clean (cuttings and fluid minimized) Excellent sampling (quality cores) Rotasonic: Disadvantages Cost Availability Dense or cobbly materials are heated by vibration (loss of volatiles) Groundwater Investigations 19

36 Drilling Methods Mud Rotary Drilling MUD TUB Mud Rotary Drilling MUD PUMP MUD TUB Rotary Drilling Mud Pit Groundwater Investigations 20

37 Drilling Methods Rotary Drill Bit Mud Rotary: Advantages Availability Satisfactory drilling in most formations Good depth capability Mud Rotary: Disadvantages Requires drilling fluid Circulates contaminants Mobility may be limited Poor rock or soil sample recovery Groundwater Investigations 21

38 Drilling Methods Air Rotary Drilling Air Rotary: Advantages No drilling fluid required Excellent drilling in hard rock Good depth capability Excellent delineation of water-bearing zones Air Rotary: Disadvantages Casing may be required during drilling Cross contamination of different formations possible Mobility may be limited Difficult formation sampling Groundwater Investigations 22

39 Drilling Methods Groundwater Investigations 23

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41 Hydrogeology Hydrogeology Hydrogeology The study of interactions of geologic materials and processes with water, especially groundwater. Hydrologic Cycle TRANSPIRATION PRECIPITATION EVAPORATION WATER TABLE RUNOFF SOIL MOISTURE GROUNDWATER RECHARGE GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE Groundwater Investigations 1

42 Hydrogeology Stream Flow Stream Flow v (velocity) Q (discharge) A (crosssectional area) Q = Av Gaining Stream DISCHARGE = 8 cfs DISCHARGE = 10 cfs Groundwater Investigations 2

43 Hydrogeology Losing Stream DISCHARGE = 10 cfs DISCHARGE = 8 cfs POROSITY (N t ) The volumetric ratio between the void spaces (V v ) and total rock (V t ): N t = V v ; N t = S y + S r V t S y = specific yield S r = specific retention VOID SPACE PERCENT POROSITY = TOTAL VOLUME - VOLUME SOIL PARTICLES TOTAL VOLUME SOLID PARTICLE x 100 Groundwater Investigations 3

44 Hydrogeology Sediment and Water Capacity Relationships Void Space Volume: Porosity Water Saturation Groundwater Investigations 4

45 Hydrogeology Water Retained After Gravity Drainage SPECIFIC RETENTION SPECIFIC YIELD Primary Porosity Refers to voids formed at the time the rock or sediment formed. Porosity TOTAL POROSITY (N t ): EFFECTIVE POROSITY (N e ): CLAY SAND GRAVEL 40-85% 25-50% 25-45% 1-10% 10-30% 15-30% Groundwater Investigations 5

46 Hydrogeology Secondary Porosity Refers to voids that were formed after the rock was formed. Secondary Porosity Fractured rock (grey) and solution weathered rock (blue) Secondary Porosity Solution Weathering Derived Secondary Porosity 18 Groundwater Investigations 6

47 Hydrogeology Permeability The ease with which liquid will move through a porous medium. Hydraulic Conductivity The capacity of a porous medium to transmit water. Hydraulic Conductivity Groundwater Investigations 7

48 Hydrogeology Aquifer A permeable geologic unit with the ability to store, transmit, and yield water in "usable quantities." Usable Quantity? Homogeneous Having uniform sediment size and orientation throughout an aquifer. Groundwater Investigations 8

49 Hydrogeology Heterogeneous Having a nonuniform sediment size and orientation throughout an aquifer. Isotropic Hydraulic conductivity is independent of the direction of measurement at a point in a geologic formation. Anisotropic Hydraulic conductivity varies with the direction of measurement at a point in a geologic formation. Groundwater Investigations 9

50 Hydrogeology HOMOGENEOUS HETEROGENEOUS Aquitard A layer of low permeability that can store and transmit groundwater from one aquifer to another. Aquiclude An impermeable confining layer. The USGS refers to both Aquicludes and Aquitards as confining layers or confining units. Groundwater Investigations 10

51 Hydrogeology Total Head (h t ) Combination of elevation (z) and pressure head (h p ) h t = z + h p Total head is the energy imparted to a column of water GROUNDWATER LEVEL PRESSURE HEAD (h p ) HYDRAULIC OR (h t ) POINT OF MEASUREMENT ELEVATION HEAD (z) TOTAL HEAD DATUM (usually sea level) Unconfined Aquifer: Water Table A permeable geologic unit without a confining bed between the zone of saturation and the surface. Groundwater Investigations 11

52 Hydrogeology Unconfined Aquifer WATER TABLE VADOSE ZONE GROUNDWATER FLOW UNCONFINED AQUIFER VERTICAL EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES GROUNDWATER FLOW CONFINING UNIT -AQUITARD Confined Aquifer: Artesian An aquifer overlain by a confining layer whose water is under sufficient pressure to rise above the base of the upper confining layer if it is perforated. Confined Aquifer VADOSE ZONE CONFINING UNIT AQUITARD POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE CONFINED AQUIFER BASE OF UPPER CONFINING UNIT CONFINING UNIT -AQUITARD Groundwater Investigations 12

53 Hydrogeology Aquifers and Aquitards VADOSE ZONE UNCONFINED AQUIFER WATER TABLE AQUITARD CONFINED AQUIFER AQUITARD CONFINED AQUIFER RECHARGE VADOSE ZONE WATER TABLE CONFINING LAYERS (AQUITARDS) Potentiometric Surface The level to which water will rise in an opening (well) if the upper confining layer of a confined aquifer is perforated. Groundwater Investigations 13

54 Hydrogeology Artesian Groundwater System RECHARGE AREA POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE RECHARGE AREA AQUIFER AQUITARDS Artesian Groundwater System FLOWING ARTESIAN WELL OVERBURDEN PRESSURE POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE HYDRAULIC PRESSURE GW FLOW AQUITARDS Darcy's Law Q = KIA Q = discharge K = hydraulic conductivity I = hydraulic gradient A = area ( ) dh dl Groundwater Investigations 14

55 Hydrogeology Darcy's Law The flow rate through a porous material is proportional to the head loss and inversely proportional to the length of the flow path Valid for laminar flow Assume homogeneous and isotropic conditions Hydraulic Conductivity (K) The volume of flow through a unit cross section of an aquifer per unit decline of head. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY AQUITARD dl CONFINED AQUIFER Q dh AQUITARD Groundwater Investigations 15

56 Hydrogeology Hydraulic Conductivity dl Q dh Q = KIA Q K = IA K = hydraulic conductivity A = cross-sectional area Q = rate of flow I = hydraulic gradient dh ( dl ) Q (Flow rate) dh head ( ) loss A (area) Darcy's Law dl (length of flow path) Q Q 1 Decreasing the hydraulic head decreases the dl flow rate. Q 1 Q 1 > Q 2 dh 1 dh 2 Q 2 dl Q 2 Groundwater Investigations 16

57 Hydrogeology dh Increasing the flow path length decreases the flow rate. Q 1 > Q 2 Q 1 dl 1 Q 1 Q 2 dh dl 2 Q 2 Groundwater Velocity Darcy's Law Q = KIA or Q = Kl A Q Velocity equation Q = Av or = v A By combining, obtain: v = KI Darcian velocity Groundwater Velocity Because water moves only through pore spaces that are connected, porosity is a factor. V N t = v or N t = S r + S V y t n e = S y = N t -S r ~ effective porosity Kl v s = seepage velocity n e Groundwater Investigations 17

58 Hydrogeology Transmissivity The capacity of the entire thickness of an aquifer to transmit water T = transmissivity T = Kb K = hydraulic conductivity b = aquifer thickness dl AQUITARD dh b = 100m GW FLOW K = 20 m/d AQUITARD Transmissivity Transmissivity T = Kb T = (20 m/d) (100 m) T = 2000 m 2 /d Groundwater Investigations 18

59 Hydrogeology Storativity The amount of water available for "use" in an aquifer (storage coefficient) "Specific yield" in an unconfined aquifer Groundwater Investigations 19

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61 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Monitoring Well Construction CONCRETE PAD PROTECTIVE WELL COVER BOREHOLE ANNULUS WELL CASING PROTECTIVE SURFACE CASING GROUT BENTONITE SEAL FILTER PACK PLUG WELL SCREEN Well Installation Unconfined aquifer Confined aquifer Groundwater Investigations 1

62 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Monitoring Well: Unconfined Aquifer WELL CAP STEEL CAP RISER BENTONITE/CEMENT OR BENTONITE GROUT BENTONITE PELLETS FILTER PACK CONFINING LAYER PLUG/ CAP EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE WELL SCREEN Monitoring Well: Confined Aquifer EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE WELL CASING STEEL CASING POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE GROUT AQUITARD BENTONITE SEAL FILTER PACK PLUG CAP WELL SCREEN Well Installation Confined Aquifer Groundwater Investigations 2

63 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Installing Steel Isolation Casing STEP 1: Drill into confining layer UNCONFINED AQUIFER AQUITARD CONFINED AQUIFER Installing steel isolation casing (Option A) STEP 2: Grout being pumped by tremie line down the outside of the steel casing UNCONFINED AQUIFER AQUITARD CONFINED AQUIFER Installing steel isolation casing (Option B) STEP 2: Grout being pumped through an inflatable packer to the bottom of the casing and forced up the outside creating a seal UNCONFINED AQUIFER AQUITARD CONFINED AQUIFER Groundwater Investigations 3

64 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Installing steel isolation casing STEP 3: Drilling inside of the steel casing using smaller diameter augers UNCONFINED AQUIFER AQUITARD CONFINED AQUIFER Nested Wells/Well Cluster GROUT AQUIFER AQUITARD AQUIFER AQUITARD BENTONITE FILTER PACK AQUIFER AQUITARD Inflatable Packer Multilevel Sampling AQUITARD SAMPLE PORT INFLATABLE PACKER MULTIPLE SAMPLING INTERVALS CASING AND SCREEN AQUIFER Groundwater Investigations 4

65 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Well Materials Well screen/riser/well points - Teflon - Stainless steel - PVC Gravel/filter pack Bentonite Grout/cement PVC Well Screen Stainless Steel Well Screen Groundwater Investigations 5

66 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Dual Wall Screen Setting the Well with Centralizer Installing Filter Pack Material Groundwater Investigations 6

67 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Bentonite Samples Well Riser Pipe Finished Well Pad with Protected Casing Groundwater Investigations 7

68 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Flush Mounted Well Well and Aquifer Development Surge block Bailer Pulse pumping Air surging Poor Well Development MUDDY WATER Groundwater Investigations 8

69 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Well Development: Surge Block Well Development: Bailer Well Development: Pulse Pumping PULSE PUMPING Groundwater Investigations 9

70 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Well Development: Air Surging Sampling Methods Bladder pump Submersible pump Hand pump Bailer Diffusion bag sampler Groundwater Sampling Protocol Flexible Written and defensible document to be used at all sites Groundwater Investigations 10

71 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Purging Volume is well specific Verified by temperature, ph, specific conductance, and turbidity Determining Well Volume V = Volume of water in gallons d = Diameter of well in inches h = Depth of water in well in feet Selection of Filter Pack and Well Screen Groundwater Investigations 11

72 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Filter Pack: Purpose To allow groundwater to flow freely into well To minimize or eliminate entrance of fine-grained materials Sieve Exercise SIEVE OPENING (thousandths of an inch) 16 (.016") 20 (.020") 24 (.024") TABLE 1 FINE SAND SIEVE ANALYSIS PERCENT RETAINED 18% 32% 20% CUMULATIVE PERCENT RETAINED 90% 72% 40% 20% 28 (.028") 12% 34 (.034") 8% 8% CUMULATIVE PERCENT RETAINED #5 # INCH GRAIN SIZE IN THOUSANDTHS OF AN INCH Groundwater Investigations 12

73 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis CUMULATIVE PERCENT RETAINED #5 # INCH GRAIN SIZE IN THOUSANDTHS OF AN INCH CUMULATIVE PERCENT RETAINED AQUIFER SIEVE ANALYSIS #5 # INCH GRAIN SIZE IN THOUSANDTHS OF AN INCH Filter Pack: Selection Multiply the 70-percent retained grain size of aquifer materials by 4 or 6 Use 4 if formation is fine-grained and uniform Use 6 is formation is coarse-grained and nonuniform Groundwater Investigations 13

74 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis CUMULATIVE PERCENT RETAINED AQUIFER SIEVE ANALYSIS #5 # INCH 20 GRAIN SIZE IN THOUSANDTHS OF AN INCH CUMULATIVE PERCENT RETAINED #5 # INCH GRAIN SIZE IN THOUSANDTHS OF AN INCH Well Screen Surrounded by filter pack Filter pack consists of: - Coarse materials - Uniform grain size - Higher permeability Groundwater Investigations 14

75 Well Installation and Sediment Analysis Well Screen: Selection Select screen slot opening to retain 90 percent of filter pack material CUMULATIVE PERCENT RETAINED #5 # INCH GRAIN SIZE IN THOUSANDTHS OF AN INCH Groundwater Investigations 15

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77 Aquifer Stress Tests AQUIFER STRESS TESTS Aquifer Stress Test Information collected from aquifer tests includes: Transmissivity and storage coefficient Position and nature of aquifer boundaries Groundwater available for withdrawl Unconfined Aquifer "Non-Pumping" LAND SURFACE GROUNDWATER FLOW WATER TABLE SURFACE AQUICLUDE Groundwater Investigations 1

78 Aquifer Stress Tests Unconfined Aquifer LAND SURFACE LIMITS OF CONE OF DEPRESSION Q CONE OF DEPRESSION FLOW LINES WATER TABLE AQUICLUDE Confined Aquifer LIMITS OF CONE OF DEPRESSION Potentiometric Surface LAND SURFACE Q DRAWDOWN AQUICLUDE CONE OF DEPRESSION AQUICLUDE LAND SURFACE POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE Confined Aquifer Q r R h 0 DRAWDOWN (h -h) 0 h CONE OF DEPRESSION AQUICLUDE CONFINED AQUIFER AQUICLUDE Groundwater Investigations 2

79 Aquifer Stress Tests Aquifer Response Rate of expansion of the cone of depression relates to the transmissivity of the aquifer. Equilibrium vs. Non-equilibrium Initial pumping causes a non-equilibrium cone of depression Eventually the cone expands away from the pumping well as partly steady shape and partly unsteady shapes Non-Pumping LAND SURFACE RIVER CONFINING LAYER CONFINED AQUIFER CONFINING LAYER Groundwater Investigations 3

80 Aquifer Stress Tests Non-Equilibrium Q LAND SURFACE RIVER CONE OF DEPRESSION (unsteady shape) AQUICLUDE CONFINED AQUIFER CONFINING LAYER Non-Equilibrium Q LAND SURFACE RIVER steady shape unsteady shape AQUICLUDE AQUICLUDE Equilibrium Q LAND SURFACE RIVER steady state AQUICLUDE steady state AQUICLUDE Groundwater Investigations 4

81 Aquifer Stress Tests Aquifer Test Methods A. Equilibrium Method Theim Test B. Non Equilibrium Methods Time-drawdown tests Slug tests Equilibrium Method Theim's Method Gustav Theim in 1906 developed the mathematical relationship between Darcy's Law and distance-draw-down data. Theim's test required pumping from the well until the expanding cone of depression ceased to move, reaching a steady state and equilibrium Theim's Method Disadvantages Time consuming, many days or weeks to achieve this equilibrium During that time could produce large quantities of water especially contaminated water Requires multiple wells to observe the growth of the cone of depression Expensive Advantages Enough time to see satellite boundaries Groundwater Investigations 5

82 Aquifer Stress Tests Non-Equilibrium Method Theis Method Developed in 1935 by Charles Theis and was a major advancement in aquifer testing First formula for nonsteady-state flow Groundwater flow derived from analogy of heat flow Non-Equilibrium Test Methods Theis Cooper-Jacob Slug Test Cooper - Jacob Test Method Somewhat more convenient than Theis's method Semilogarithmic paper straight line plot Eliminates need to solve well function W(u) No curve matching required Groundwater Investigations 6

83 Aquifer Stress Tests Cooper - Jacob Formulas T = 35 Q s K = T b 2 T = transmissivity feet squared per day (ft /day) Q = pump rate (gpm) s = change in drawdown (ft/log cycle) K = hydraulic conductivity ft /day b = aquifer thickness (feet) Cooper - Jacob Semi Log Plot Cooper - Jacobs Method Advantages Less time to perform test; consider straight-line drawdown over one log cycle on the semi log graphical plot Only one well required Tests larger aquifer volume than slug test Groundwater Investigations 7

84 Aquifer Stress Tests Cooper - Jacobs Method Disadvantages Requires conductivities >10-2 cm/s Tests smaller portion of the aquifer volume than multiple-well tests Must handle discharge water Slug Tests Perform on low-yielding aquifers (between 10-7 to 10-2 cm/s) Water level is abruptly raised or lowered using a slug or volume of water Water level changes are recorded, and a ratio of these changes (h) to the initial change in head (h 0 ) measurement is calculated and plotted against the time when these changes occurred Slug Tests The graph allows one to determine the "hydrostatic time lag" (T 0 ), i.e., the amount of time necessary to obtain pressure equalization between the measuring device and the aquifer This time lag accounts for some of the error encountered in performing this type of test Groundwater Investigations 8

85 Aquifer Stress Tests Slug Tests o.63 Slug Tests Advantages Can use small-diameter well No pumping no discharge Inexpensive less equipment required Estimate made in situ Interpretation/reporting time is shortened Slug Tests Disadvantages Very small volume of aquifer tested Only apply to low conductivities Transmissivity and conductivity only estimates Not applicable to large-diameter wells Large errors if well not properly developed Groundwater Investigations 9

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87 Unsaturated Zone Unsaturated Zone Lecture Objectives Discuss water movement within the unsaturated zone Discuss principals of vapor intrusion Present vapor intrusion case study Unsaturated Zone Loam Sandy silt Water table Sand and gravel Sand Bedrock Groundwater Investigations 1

88 Unsaturated Zone Why Discuss Unsaturated Zone? Recharge of groundwater zones often occurs with the percolation of surface water or contaminants flowing through the unsaturated zone. Flow can be influenced by physical and chemical properties of the unsaturated zone Unsaturated Flow Defined as the movement of water through the unsaturated zone. Water flow in the unsaturated zone is controlled by the combination of gravitational and capillary forces. Gravitational and Capillary Forces Gravitational force is the downward pull on water and encourages infiltration. Capillarity force is the combination of: Cohesion, the mutual attraction between water molecules Adhesion, the molecular attraction between water and different solid materials Groundwater Investigations 2

89 Unsaturated Zone Capillarity Figure from USGS Water-Supply Paper 2220 As a result of capillary forces, water will rise in the pore throats of a porous media above the water table or a water surface. Unsaturated Flow The steady state of water flow in the unsaturated zone is determined by a modified Darcy's law: Q = Ke A (hc-z)/z ± (dh/dl) Q = Quantity of water A = Area of flow Ke = Effective hydraulic conductivity under the degree of water saturation existing in the unsaturated zone (hc-z)/z = gradient due to capillary force ±dh/dl = gradient due to gravity. The plus or minus sign is related to the direction of movement-plus for downward and minus for upward. Unsaturated Flow The variables in the modified Darcy's law are: Q = Ke A (hc-z)/z ± (dh/dl) Effective hydraulic conductivity (Ke) and Capillary force (hc-z)/z Groundwater Investigations 3

90 Unsaturated Zone Unsaturated Flow Effective hydraulic conductivity (Ke) is the hydraulic conductivity of the material that is not completely saturated. The value can change based on the water content of the unsaturated zone. Figure from USGS Water-Supply Paper 2220 Unsaturated Flow The capillary forces (hc-z)/z can change based on the length of the capillary water column (z) in relation to the maximum possible height of capillary rise (hc). Figure from USGS Water-Supply Paper 2220 Unsaturated Flow Because most unconsolidated sediments are deposited in stratified layers, the water or contaminants must percolate vertically through horizontal layers. Each layer may have a different effective hydraulic conductivity and capillary force. Groundwater Investigations 4

91 Unsaturated Zone Unsaturated Flow, Un-Stratified Bed Model filled with consistent sized medium-sand glass beads (diameters of 0.47 mm) having a capillary height of about 250 mm and a hydraulic conductivity of 82 m/day. Figure from USGS Water-Supply Paper 2220 Unsaturated Flow, Stratified Bed The water in Beds A and C spread horizontally because of the strong capillary force and the low hydraulic conductivity. Because the hydraulic conductivity of Beds B and D is 100 times greater than Bed A and C, the water moved vertically downward. Figure from USGS Water-Supply Paper 2220 Vapor Intrusion Image from ITRC (Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council) Vapor Intrusion Pathway: A Practical Guideline. VI-1. Washington, D.C.: Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, Vapor Intrusion Team. Groundwater Investigations 5

92 Unsaturated Zone Vapor Intrusion Source of vapors are either from vapors in the unsaturated zone or a migrating plume dispensing vapors into the unsaturated zone. Vapor Intrusion Vapors move through the unsaturated zone by: Diffusion - the expansion of gases from high concentrations to lower concentrations. Advection - the movement of gases through pressure changes (in vapor intrusion issues this may occur near buildings). Vapor Intrusion The movement of the vapors from the subsurface into a structure depend on: Depth to groundwater (if source is from groundwater contamination) Soil and unconsolidated material types below the structure Chemical properties of the contaminant Structure design and condition Pressure differential Groundwater Investigations 6

93 Unsaturated Zone This ITRC graphic shows vapors entering the structure through advection. This can be caused by stack effect, exhaust fans, wind effects, thermal currents, and barometric pressure changes. Vapor Intrusion Image from ITRC (Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council) Vapor Intrusion Pathway: A Practical Guideline Vapor Intrusion Case Study Behr VOC Site Dayton, Ohio Common Characteristics of Vapor Intrusion Sites in Southwest Ohio Shallow groundwater (<25 ) Sand & Gravel Aquifer VOC or petroleum groundwater contamination VOCs in GW > 200ppb Residential area over groundwater plume 1940s industrial complex plant surrounded by houses Residential homes with basements (biggest variable) Groundwater Investigations 7

94 Unsaturated Zone What is Vapor Intrusion? Groundwater contamination... inhalation? Chemical Spill- Trichloroethylene (TCE) Groundwater Contamination Connects groundwater, soil gas, sub slab gas, and indoor air. What are Screening Levels? Chemical Spill-TCE Screening levels provided by ODH and ATSDR. For TCE (residential): Sub-Slab Screening Level = 4 ppb Indoor Air Screening Level = 0.4 ppb 2003 Ohio EPA Groundwater Results Source Area = 20,000 ppb Groundwater Investigations 8

95 Unsaturated Zone Vapor Intrusion TCE Chemical Spill Groundwater TCE = 20,000 ppb Groundwater Contamination Groundwater Data Groundwater TCE concentrations near houses. MW029s TCE = 16,000 ppb MW033s TCE = 3,800 ppb MW028s TCE = 3,900 ppb MW038s TCE = 3,900 ppb Vapor Intrusion TCE Chemical Spill Groundwater TCE = 20,000 ppb Groundwater Contamination Groundwater TCE = 16,000 ppb Groundwater Investigations 9

96 Unsaturated Zone Soil Gas Sampling Results - Oct 24, Locations sampled utilizing Geoprobe Location TCE (ppbv) SG ,000 SG-02 70,000 SG ,000 SG ,000 SG-05 13,000 SG-06 16,000 SG-07 12,000 Vapor Intrusion TCE Chemical Spill Soil Gas TCE = 160,000 ppb Groundwater TCE = 20,000 ppb Groundwater Contamination Groundwater TCE = 16,000 ppb Request for Assistance Ohio EPA requested assistance from U.S. EPA on November 6, 2006 Noted elevated levels of TCE present in soil gas and groundwater. Evaluate potential for Vapor Intrusion into occupied structures. Groundwater Investigations 10

97 Unsaturated Zone Sub-Slab sampling conducted. TCE screening level = 4 ppb Sub-Slab Sampling TCE Chemical Spill Soil Gas TCE = 160,000 ppb Groundwater Contamination Groundwater TCE = 20,000 ppb Groundwater TCE = 16,000 ppb Sub Slab Air Sampling EPA sampled sub-slab air in 8 residences in November EPA Sub-Slab Sample Results November 2006 Location TCE (ppb) EPA EPA-02 18,000 EPA-03 16,000 EPA EPA-05 62,000 EPA-06 3,700 EPA EPA-08 62,000 ATSDR & ODH Sub-Slab Screening Level = 4 ppb Groundwater Investigations 11

98 Unsaturated Zone Vapor Intrusion TCE Chemical Spill Sub-slab TCE = 62,000 ppb Soil Gas TCE = 160,000 ppb Groundwater Contamination Groundwater TCE = 20,000 ppb Groundwater TCE = 16,000 ppb Indoor Air Sampling If Indoor Air Sample >0.4 ppb, mitigation required TCE Chemical Spill Sub-slab TCE = 62,000 ppb Soil Gas TCE = 160,000 ppb Groundwater TCE = 20,000 ppb Groundwater Contamination Groundwater TCE = 16,000 ppb Pre-Sample Residential Checklist Screen indoor air prior to indoor air sampling to identify residential interferences Groundwater Investigations 12

99 Unsaturated Zone EPA Indoor Air Sample Results November 2006 Location TCE (ppb) EPA EPA EPA EPA EPA EPA EPA EPA ATSDR & ODH Indoor Air Screening Level = 0.4 ppb Vapor Intrusion ATSDR & ODH: Completed Exposure Pathway TCE Chemical Spill Indoor Air TCE = 260 ppb Sub-slab TCE = 62,000 ppb Soil Gas TCE = 160,000 ppb Groundwater TCE = 20,000 ppb Groundwater Contamination Groundwater TCE = 16,000 ppb Vapor Abatement Mitigation System (Sub-Slab Depressurization System or SSDS) Radius of Influence? Least amount of vacuum? Groundwater Investigations 13

100 Unsaturated Zone Vapor Abatement System Installation Extraction Pipe into Slab Based on radius of influence testing, multiple extraction points may be necessary. Note: Looking for entire slab to be under vacuum Vapor Abatement System Installation Outside Fan and Vent Fan installed with electric on/off switch in a lockbox. Key provided to owner VAS $ = average $1,500 installation Vapor Abatement System Installation Radius of Influence Testing Radius of Influence testing = 96% success rate on initial installation at the Behr Site Success = 30 & 90 day samples < IA screening level Groundwater Investigations 14

101 Unsaturated Zone Vapor Abatement System Installation Crawl Space Application Vapor Abatement System Installation Dirt Basement (Test Case) Vapor Abatement System Installation Dirt Basement Plastic netting applied under concrete to increase air flow to extraction pipe Concrete creates impervious layer Groundwater Investigations 15

102 Unsaturated Zone Vapor Abatement System Installation Dirt Basement Highest vacuum achieved based on radius of influence testing. Vapor Abatement System Installation U Tube Manometer on Extraction Pipe 1"- 2" vacuum applied to extraction point 30 & 90 Day Performance Sampling 30 & 90 day sampling performed to confirm ATSDR screening levels have been achieved. 180 day sampling completed per HD request. Groundwater Investigations 16

103 Geophysical Methods Geophysical Methods Geophysics Nonintrusive, investigative tool Methods specific to site Professional interpretation Interpretation needs to be ground-truthed Relative Site Coverage VOLUME OF TYPICAL GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENT VOLUME OF DRILLING OR WATER SAMPLING Groundwater Investigations 1

104 Geophysical Methods Significant variation from background Interpretations are non-unique Anomaly Geophysical Techniques Magnetics Electromagnetics (EM) Electrical resistivity Seismic refraction/reflection Ground-penetrating radar Borehole geophysics Magnetics Measurement of magnetic field strength in units of nanoteslas Anomalies are variations in magnetic field strength from the ambient field Anomalies can be positive or negative Groundwater Investigations 2

105 Geophysical Methods Magnetometer Magnetic Field Sensors FERROUS MATERIAL ALTERING EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD RECORDER GROUND SURFACE CHANGE IN MAGNETIC FIELD (Nano-Tesla) Cesium magnetometer Gradiometer configuration Groundwater Investigations 3

106 Geophysical Methods Magnetics: Advantages Relatively low cost for area covered Short time frame required Little site preparation needed Relatively simple line locations are sufficient Magnetics: Limitations Cultural noise limitations Difficulty in differentiating between objects (i.e., 55-gallon drums and a refrigerator) Only iron or steel objects are detected Depth determination difficult Electromagnetics: EM-31 Measures bulk conductivity Groundwater Investigations 4

107 Geophysical Methods Electromagnetics: EM-31 Based on physical principles of inducing and detecting electrical flow within geologic strata Measures bulk conductivity beneath the transmitter and receiver coils EM-31 is a frequency domain instrument Electromagnetics: EM-61 EM-61 is basically a metal detector It also uses electric fields but in the time domain It is very good at locating drums and tanks No geologic data is obtained Electromagnetics: Advantages Rapid data collection with minimum personnel Lightweight, portable equipment Commonly used in groundwater pollution investigations for determining plume flow direction (EM-31 and 34) Groundwater Investigations 5

108 Geophysical Methods Electromagnetics: Limitations Cultural noise limitations, Sometimes there is difficulty operating near buildings, fences, etc Limitations in areas where geology varies laterally anomalies can be misinterpreted as plumes Depth of penetration limited by coil spacing (EM-31, EM-34) Resistivity Survey Resistivity Survey Setup Tape measures for laying out wires STING Resistivity Unit Electrodes Wires for electrodes Groundwater Investigations 6

109 Geophysical Methods Electrical Resistivity Measures the bulk resistivity of the subsurface in ohm-meter units Current is injected into the ground through surface electrodes Electrical Resistivity Wenner Array Current Source Ammeter Volt Meter C 1 P 1 P 2 C 2 SURFACE Current Potential Current Flow Through the Earth Depth of investigation is equal to one-fourth to one-third of the distance between electrodes Electrical Resistivities of Geologic Materials Function of: Media Porosity Permeability Water saturation Concentration of dissolved solids in pore fluids Groundwater Investigations 7

110 Geophysical Methods Electrical Resistivity Data INVERSE MODEL RESISTIVITY SECTION Resistivity in ohm.m Unit electrode spacing 3.0 m SOIL CAVERN LIMESTONE Electrical Resistivity: Advantages Qualitative modeling of data is feasible Models can be used to estimate depths, thicknesses, and resistivities of subsurface layers These resistivities are somewhat indicative of the material observed Electrical Resistivity: Advantages Layer resistivities can be used to estimate resistivity of saturating fluid Extent of groundwater plume can be approximated Groundwater Investigations 8

111 Geophysical Methods Electrical Resistivity: Limitations Cultural noise limitations Fences, buildings, piping Large area free from grounded metallic structures required May require a significant level of effort / number of trained personnel Newer units require fewer, better trained people SEISMIC SOURCE Seismic Refraction GEOPHONES 2500 fps sand REFLECTED WAVE 5000 fps saturated sand REFRACTED WAVE SEISMIC WAVE PATHS Seismic Refraction Measures travel time of acoustic wave refracted along an interface Most commonly used at sites where bedrock is less than 500 feet below ground surface Groundwater Investigations 9

112 Geophysical Methods Seismograph Field Layout Showing Direct and Refracted Waves HAMMER SOURCE TRIGGER CABLE GEOPHONE ARRAY SEISMOGRAPH SOIL DIRECT WAVES BEDROCK FIRST ARRIVAL WAVE FRONTS SECOND ARRIVAL WAVE FRONTS Geophone cable connection box Computer with seismic program Seismometer set up Seismic Survey Planting the geophones Groundwater Investigations 10

113 Geophysical Methods DISTANCE FROM SOURCE Wave Signatures TIME Seismic Refraction: Assumptions Velocities of layers increase with depth Velocity contrast between layers is sufficient to resolve interface Geometry of geophones in relation to refracting layers will permit detection of thin layers Seismic Refraction: Advantages Layer velocities indicative of material Calculate estimates of depths to different rock or groundwater interfaces Obtain subsurface information between boreholes Determine depth to water table Groundwater Investigations 11

114 Geophysical Methods Seismic Refraction: Limitations There is an assumption that the material velocity always increases with each layer That each layer is thick enough to be detected There is no way to test these other than a seismic reflection survey or drilling Depth is related to spread length Ground-Penetrating Radar An antenna transmits high-frequency electromagnetic energy into the subsurface. This energy is reflected back to the receiving antenna from material interfaces and recorded. Ground-Penetrating Radar GPS unit Data Display Antenna Data Display Groundwater Investigations 12

115 Geophysical Methods Ground-Penetrating Radar: Advantages Continuous display of data Highest resolution data under favorable site conditions Real-time site evaluation possible Very good water table and sediment layer determination possible Ground-Penetrating Radar: Limitations Depth of penetration adversely affected by high clay content Fairly shallow (100 feet) even with excellent conditions Site preparation may be necessary for survey Quality of data can be degraded by cultural noise, surface conditions and uneven ground surface Borehole Geophysics Groundwater Investigations 13

116 Geophysical Methods Resistivity Log UNSATURATED SANDY CLAY UNSATURATED SILTY SAND SATURATED SILTY SAND CLAY SATURATED SANDY GRAVEL FRACTURED GRANITE Borehole Geophysics Normal resistivity Natural-gamma Gamma-gamma Electromagnetic Induction Neutron Caliper Temperature Full Wave Sonic Down hole camera Groundwater Investigations 14

117 Geophysical Methods Resistivity Measures apparent resistivity of a volume of rock or soil surrounding the borehole Radius of investigation is generally equal to the distance between the borehole current and measuring electrodes Can only be run in open, fluid-filled boreholes Natural Gamma Measures the amount of natural-gamma radiation emitted by rocks or soils (Potassium-40) Primary use is identification of lithology and stratigraphic correlation Can be run in open or cased and fluid- or airfilled boreholes Density Probe Measures the intensity of gamma radiation from a source in the probe after it is backscattered and attenuated in the rocks or soils surrounding the borehole Also known as gamma-gamma tool Groundwater Investigations 15

118 Geophysical Methods Density Probe Primary use is identification of lithology and measurement of bulk density and porosity of rocks or soils Can be run in open or cased and fluid- or air-filled boreholes Electromagnetic Induction Measures the conductivity of the rock Measures the conductivity of the pore fluid Useful for correlating lithology and conductive plumes Technique the same as surface frequency domain EM (EM-31) Neutron Measures moisture content in the vadose zone and total porosity in sediments and rocks Neutron sources and detector are arranged in logging device so that output is mainly a function of water within the borehole walls Can be run in open or cased and fluidor air-filled boreholes Groundwater Investigations 16

119 Geophysical Methods Caliper Records borehole diameter and provides information on fracturing, bedding plane partings, or openings that may affect fluid transport Can be run in open or cased and fluid- or airfilled boreholes Temperature A continuous record of the temperature of the environment immediately surrounding the borehole Information can be obtained on the source and movement of water and the thermal conductivity of rocks Can be run in open or cased, fluid-filled boreholes Full Wave Sonic Acoustic wave form is recorded by one or two sensors Compressional, Shear and Stoneley waves are recorded and analyzed Porosity, permeability, bulk modulus, shear modulus and Poisson s ratio can be calculated Used in fluid filled open holes Groundwater Investigations 17

120 Geophysical Methods Borehole Video Logging Borehole video logging provides a visual picture of borehole conditions. Useful in identifying fractures, voids, cascading water, well/boring blockage and other downhole trouble shooting. Plastic Riser Plastic Screen Caliper Natural Gamma Neutron Gamma-Gamma Flowmeter Acoustic Tomography Temperature Fluid Resistivity Video Deviation Same As Above + Single Point- Resistivity Caliper Natural Gamma Neutron Gamma-Gamma Flowmeter Temperature Fluid Resistivity Video 6 Various Casing Conditions Screened Auger Auger Flight Log Application Guide Caliper Natural Gamma Neutron Gamma-Gamma Flowmeter Fluid Resistivity Video Caliper Natural Gamma Neutron Gamma-Gamma Flowmeter Temperature Fluid Resistivity Video Same As Above Metal Riser Metal Screen Groundwater Investigations 18

121 Geophysical Methods EM Instruments Surface Geophysics Geonics, Dualem, Geophex, Radar Sensors and Software, GSSI, geophysical.com Magnetics Geometrics, Gem Systems, Resistivity Instruments Surface Geophysics ABEM, Advanced Geosciences Inc., Seismic Geometrics, Seistronix, seistronix.com Geophysical logging Mount Sopris Instruments, References / Sources Borehole Geophysics Applications of Borehole Geophysics to Water-Resources Investigations, USGS xt.html Groundwater Investigations 19

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133 GLOSSARY AND ACRONYMS acre-foot adsorption advection alluvium anisotropic aquifer aquifer test aquitard artesian artesian aquifer artificial recharge enough water to cover 1 acre to a depth of 1 foot; equal to 43,560 cubic feet or 325,851 gallons the attraction and adhesion of a layer of ions from an aqueous solution to the solid mineral surfaces with which it is in contact the process by which solutes is transported by the bulk motion of the flowing groundwater a general term for clay, silt, sand, gravel, or similar unconsolidated material deposited during comparatively recent geologic time by a stream or other body of running water as sorted or semisorted sediment in the bed of the stream or on its floodplain or delta, or as a cone or fan at the base of a mountain slope hydraulic conductivity ( K ), differing with direction a geologic formation, group of formations, or a part of a formation that contains sufficient permeable material to yield significant quantities of groundwater to wells and springs. Use of the term should be restricted to classifying water bodies in accordance with stratigraphy or rock types. In describing hydraulic characteristics such as transmissivity and storage coefficient, be careful to refer those parameters to the saturated part of the aquifer only. a test involving the withdrawal of measured quantities of water from, or the addition of water to, a well (or wells) and the measurement of resulting changes in head (water level) in the aquifer both during and after the period of discharge or addition a saturated, but poorly permeable bed, formation, or group of formations that does not yield water freely to a well or spring confined; under pressure sufficient to raise the water level in a well above the top of the aquifer see confined aquifer recharge at a rate greater than natural, resulting from deliberate or incidental actions of man Introduction to Groundwater Investigations

134 BTEX capillary zone capture coefficient of storage cone of depression benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes negative pressure zone just above the water table where water is drawn up from saturated zone into matrix pores due to cohesion of water molecules and adhesion of these molecules to matrix particles. Zone thickness may be several inches to several feet depending on porosity and pore size. the decrease in water discharge naturally from a ground-water reservoir plus any increase in water recharged to the reservoir resulting from pumping the volume of water an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in head depression of heads surrounding a well caused by withdrawal of water (larger cone for confined aquifer than for unconfined) confined aquifer confining bed diffusion discharge velocity discharge area dispersion geological formation capable of storing and transmitting water in usable quantities overlain by a less permeable or impermeable formation (confining layer) placing the aquifer under pressure a body of impermeable material stratigraphically adjacent to one or more aquifers the process whereby particles of liquids, gases, or solids intermingle as a result of their spontaneous movement caused by thermal agitation an apparent velocity, calculated from Darcy s law, which represents the flow rate at which water would move through the aquifer if it were an open conduit (also called specific discharge) an area in which subsurface water, including both groundwater and water in the unsaturated zone, is discharged to the land surface, to surface water, or to the atmosphere the spreading and mixing of chemical constituents in groundwater caused by diffusion and by mixing due to microscopic variations in velocities within and between pores Introduction to Groundwater Investigations

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