Notes. Lesson overview. This lesson discusses how radon enters a home, where people can be exposed to unhealthy levels.
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1 Lesson 3: How does radon enter a home? Lesson overview This lesson discusses how radon enters a home, where people can be exposed to unhealthy levels. Lesson objectives By the end of this lesson, the learners will be able to: Recognize the importance of testing all homes for radon List the three requirements for radon to enter a home Identify the factors that determine the radon level in a home Select the three most common sources of radon in homes Define the four mechanisms that transport radon into a home Cite the key characteristics of radon pathways Discuss the variations in radon levels over space and time Explain to a hypothetical client how radon enters a home In this lesson, we are going to talk about how radon enters a home, where it exposes people to the risk of developing lung cancer. (Although people can also be exposed to radon in schools, offices, other buildings, and mines, this course focuses on radon in homes.) See slide 3 1. For most Americans, their greatest exposure to radon is in their homes, especially in Rooms that are below grade (such as basements) Rooms that are in contact with the ground Rooms that are immediately above the first two categories High radon levels have been found in Homes throughout the United States Homes throughout Connecticut Every type of home o Old or new o Drafty or well sealed o With or without a basement Lesson 3 1
2 See slide 3 2. Even neighboring homes may have very different radon levels Environmental Protection Agency recommends that all homes be tested for radon o Testing is the only accurate way to determine the radon level in any home. See slide 3 3. There are three requirements for radon to enter a home: 1. A radon source 2. A mechanism to transport radon from the source into the home 3. An opening or pathway in the home that allows radon to enter See slide 3 4. The radon level in a home depends on several factors. The strength of the radon sources: this is the most important factor in determining the level of radon in a home The distance of the radon sources from the home The ease with which radon can be transported into the home The home s ventilation (to a relatively small degree) Environmental factors (such as weather) We ll consider the radon sources first. To begin with, where does radon come from? Earlier, we talked about radon and its decay products. In fact, radon itself is a decay product of uranium 238. See slide 3 5. See Handout 3 1. This slide shows the uranium decay series. Handout 3 1 provides details of this decay series, including the halflives of the various decay products. See slide 3 6. There are three main sources of radon: 1. Soil and rock, which are the main cause of radon problems 2. Groundwater 3. Building materials, which are a less common source of problems Lesson 3 2
3 For all of these sources, once radon is inside the home, it can become trapped and can build up. See slide 3 7. Let s first consider radon gas from soil and rock. Uranium was distributed widely in the earth's crust as it formed. It is present at about 0.5 to 5 parts per million in common rocks and soil. Given the age of the earth and the half lives of the various decay products (as shown in Handout 3 1), uranium s slowly progressing decay now commonly produces radon 222. Some natural soils and rocks (such as granites, shales, and limestones) contain relatively high amounts of uranium or radium. If they are underneath or near a home, they can be a source of radon in the home. (Contaminated soils from uranium processing plants are another potential source, but such problems are less common and are localized.) As noted earlier, the uranium decays into radium, which decays into radon. See slide 3 8. In a few minutes, we ll talk in detail about how radon from the soil and rocks enters a home. For now, I ll just summarize the process: Radon enters the soil gas via empty spaces (or pores) in soil and rocks. Radon concentrations in soil gas may measure from 100pCi/L to more than 100,000pCi/L. Radon in the soil gas usually moves up through the ground to the air above. Air pressure inside a home is usually lower than pressure in the soil around a home s foundation. Because of this difference in air pressure, the home acts like a vacuum, drawing radon in through cracks and other holes in the foundation, including o Cracks in basement walls and floors o Drains o Sump pumps o Exposed soil o Construction joints o Spaces around service pipes See slide 3 9. Lesson 3 3
4 The second important source of radon in a home is groundwater. Radon may be released into the air when people shower, wash clothes or dishes, flush toilets, or use water for other household purposes. Radon is generally a problem only in small, closed systems that rely on groundwater, like a private well or a small public water supply, in locations where underlying rocks contain high levels of uranium. See slide In those situations, radon gas dissolved in the groundwater does not have time to decay or disperse before it enters the home. Once inside the home, radon escapes from the water into the air during normal household activities, such as Showering Washing clothes or dishes Flushing toilets See slide In homes that rely on surface water, radon usually escapes into the air before it reaches a home. In homes that rely on large public systems with groundwater sources (wells), water is usually aerated (mixed with air), which allows radon to escape. In addition, there is usually more time for the radon in the water to decay before it reaches the home. See slide The third, but less common, source of radon is building materials, such as bricks, granite, some concrete products, sheet rock, exposed bedrock, rocks used as thermal mass for solar heating systems, or other materials containing radium or uranium. However, building materials alone rarely cause radon problems. See slide Note that even homes next to each other may have different radon sources, which contribute to different radon levels in the homes. It is therefore impossible to predict the radon level of one home on the basis of the radon level in a neighboring home. As a result, all homes should be measured for radon levels Lesson 3 4
5 See slide We ve covered the main sources of radon soil and rock, groundwater, and building materials. Do you have any questions about these sources? See slide Next, let s consider how radon is transported into the home. The mechanisms that push or pull radon into a home from the sources include Differences between indoor and outdoor air pressure (sometimes called air pressure differences or differentials) Diffusion Emanation Outgassing from groundwater As you can see from the chart, differences in air pressure are the main mechanisms driving radon into a home. They are also the main focus for reducing radon levels when necessary. See slide As we noted earlier, air pressure differences make a home act like a giant vacuum, drawing in soil gas that includes radon. For various reasons, air escapes from the top of the home. The outdoor air, including soil gas, is then at a higher pressure than the indoor air, so it is drawn though the soil and into the lower level of the home. If there is radon in the soil gas, it is also drawn into the home. As a result, radon levels are usually higher in the lower levels of a home. Air pressure differences and the vacuum effect may result from several factors: Temperature differences between indoor and outdoor air Mechanical systems (such as ventilation equipment) Environmental factors (such as weather) See slide The temperature differences between indoor and outdoor air make a home behave like a chimney, and the airflow is often called the stack effect. In the stack effect, warm indoor air rises and usually escapes from upper floors via walls and the roof. As a result, the air Lesson 3 5
6 pressure in the lowest part of the home, such as the basement or above a crawl space, is reduced. The stack effect increases when there are openings between floors such as joints and cracks in the framing, or wiring and plumbing holes that allow warm indoor air to flow upward, in what is called a thermal bypass. In a cold climate like Connecticut s, the stack effect is the largest contributor to radon entry in the winter, because we must heat our indoor air. See slide Air pressure differences that may drive radon into a home can also come from mechanical systems, such as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems and home exhaust systems. As these systems function, more outdoor air and more radon enter the home. At the same time, these mechanical systems may dilute indoor radon. See slide Air pressure differences also arise from environmental effects, which include Weather related effects, such as seasonal temperature variations; rain, snow, and frost; and wind. Other factors (such as concrete patios or asphalt driveways) that seal the soil around the home and keep radon from escaping. We ll discuss weather related effects first in more detail. We should note that these effects are often complicated with the same factors sometimes raising and sometimes lowering radon levels. See slide Radon entry is usually greater in colder weather than in warmer weather for several reasons. In warm weather: Windows are usually open, which reduces the difference in air pressure between indoor and outdoor air. As a result, less radon is drawn into the home. Lesson 3 6
7 Good natural ventilation dilutes the radon concentration. (Ventilation refers to the amount of air that flows through the home.) However, if the home is air conditioned, the cooler indoor air sinks, and the lower rooms will have higher pressure than the outdoors, which prevents soil gas from entering the home. Air conditioned homes therefore usually have lower radon concentrations. In cool weather: Windows are usually closed, which increases the difference in air pressure between indoor and outdoor air. Warmer indoor air rises and leaks out of the home through cracks and holes at the top of the building. As a result, air pressure indoors is lower than outdoors, and more radon is drawn into the home. Poor ventilation traps radon inside. See slide However, the effects of ventilation can be complicated. For example, windows in upper stories may increase the stack effect and therefore increase radon concentrations. Given what we ve just said about ventilation, do you think that windows should be open or closed when you are measuring radon levels when you do the most common test, which lasts only a few days? See slide The correct answer is that windows should be kept closed during short term tests to get the most accurate radon measurement. We ll talk about short term tests and the conditions for measuring radon in more detail a little later. See slide Other weather related factors that affect radon entry include rain, snow, and frost, all of which can seal the soil, preventing radon from escaping into the air and pushing it into the home. Rain can also displace soil gas, pushing it into the home. In fact, heavy rain can cause a sudden rise in indoor radon levels. See slide Lesson 3 7
8 Wind complicates the air pressure around a home. On the windward side, it can raise the air pressure, pushing soil gas into the home on that side. As wind blows across the home, it also creates a suction effect, pulling air from leaks downwind and at the top of the building. If possible, don t measure radon levels during high winds, because the results may not show the typical levels in a home. For greater accuracy, measure during normal wind conditions. See slide Finally, other environmental factors that can affect radon entry include those that seal or cap the soil around a home, such as concrete patios or concrete or asphalt driveways. Their effect is similar to that of rain, snow, or frost on the area around the foundation. See slide To summarize: The main mechanism that brings radon into a home is a difference in air pressure between indoor and outdoor air. Can you name the three main causes of air pressure differences? Correct answers: 1. Temperature differences between indoor and outdoor air 2. Mechanical systems 3. Environmental factors See slide Although air pressure differences represent the primary mechanism bringing radon into a home, there are several other mechanisms. Diffusion is one of them. It can occur even when there are no air pressure differences. Diffusion occurs when radon moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Because the soil or the foundation contains a higher concentration of radon than does the air in the home, radon can diffuse into a home Through holes or cracks in the foundation Through foundation materials such as concrete walls or slabs Lesson 3 8
9 Radon can also diffuse from a source that is far from a home to an area under the home, where it can then be drawn inside by air pressure differences. See slide The third mechanism that brings radon into a home is emanation. Here s how emanation works: Some building materials such as rocks, granite, bricks, and concrete contain uranium or radium. As these radioactive materials decay, radon may be created on their surfaces. That radon may be emitted into the room. The rate of emanation depends on the amount of radioactive materials and the surface area of the materials. Only rarely does emanation increase radon levels. However, it does become relevant when you consider where to place a test device. We ll discuss placement in detail in a later lesson. See slide Note: Click to animate the slide. The fourth mechanism is outgassing, the release of radon gas that has been trapped in water. We ve already discussed how radon can be released into the air when people shower, wash clothes or dishes, flush toilets, or use water for other household purposes. See slide Do you have any questions about the mechanisms that transport radon into a home? Now we need to consider the third requirement: openings or pathways into the home. See slide Some of the pathways by which radon enters a home are natural: Pores or empty spaces in the soil Cracks in the underlying rocks Earthen areas in basements Other pathways are artificial: Openings for utility lines and plumbing Water drainage systems Lesson 3 9
10 Other openings in foundations See slide In terms of radon entry, the important characteristics of a pathway are: The ease with which air moves through the pathway The distance from radium Connections with other air pathways into the home See slide We ve talked about the three requirements for radon to enter a home: 1. A radon source 2. A mechanism to transport radon from the source into the home 3. An opening or pathway in the home that allows radon to enter These factors determine the amount of radon that enters a home. See slide We ve already mentioned that radon levels vary in space: From one geographic area to another From one home to the next Within a home: from one level to another o Radon levels are usually highest in the lowest levels of a home. o If radon levels are higher in upper levels of a home, unusual factors may be the cause and the situation should be investigated. See slide Radon levels also vary in time: From season to season o In the winter, when doors and windows are closed and indoor air is heated, homes exert the greatest vacuum affect, most radon enters, and radon levels are usually highest. From day to day From hour to hour Some of the factors that affect the daily and hourly variation include Air pressure changes Wind speed and direction Indoor and outdoor temperature changes Lesson 3 10
11 Rain, snow, and frost Use of mechanical exhaust systems Somewhat surprisingly, this variation in radon levels does not seem to relate clearly to ventilation rates, probably because the effects of ventilation are quite complicated. Finally, radon levels vary with changes to the home, such as additions. Because radon levels vary, testing must be done over a period of time. See slide When we move on to measuring radon, we ll see that the required procedures are designed to control for factors that we ve discussed in this section: Air pressure differences Ventilation Environmental effects See slide Let s review what we ve covered in this section. First, we explained the importance of measuring the radon level in every home. It is impossible to predict the level in one home on the basis of levels in neighboring homes. Next, we talked about the three requirements for radon to enter a home. What are they? Correct answers: 1. Sources of radon 2. Mechanisms to carry radon into a home 3. Pathways for the radon to travel See slide This slide is also animated. Ask questions and click after learners have answered to show correct answers. The first requirement for radon entry is a source of radon. We talked about three possible sources. Can you name them and identify the most common of those sources? Correct answers: 1. Soil and rock Lesson 3 11
12 2. Groundwater 3. Building materials 4. Soil and rock at the most common sources. The second requirement for radon entry is a mechanism to carry the radon into a home. We talked about four possible mechanisms. Can you name them and identify the most significant one? Correct answers: 1. Air pressure differences 2. Diffusion 3. Emanation 4. Outgassing Air pressure differences constitute the most significant mechanism. The third requirement for radon entry is a pathway into the home. We noted that pathways could be natural or artificial. Can you name the important characteristics of a pathway? Correct answers: 1. Distance from the radon source 2. Ease with which air moves through the pathway 3. Connections with other pathways We noted that the radon level varies in several dimensions. Do you recall what they are? Correct answers: In space In time With changes in a home See slide This illustration summarizes what we have talked about. See slide Imagine that a client asks you how radon enters a home. Assume that the client is an attorney, who has no technical knowledge related to radon. Write a short, simple explanation that you could use to answer this question for your client. Lesson 3 12
13 Be sure to cover: The importance of testing every home for radon Factors that determine the radon level in a home The most common sources of radon The common mechanisms that make radon enter a home The pathways that radon follows into a home Variations in radon levels over space and time Answer the following questions. Is the explanation complete? Is the explanation clear? Does the explanation contain the right level of technical detail for this client? See Handout 3 2, which is a sample explanation. Handout 3 2 is a sample explanation. You can compare it with the explanation that you wrote. Yours does not need to be identical to this handout, so long as it covers the same important information. See Handout 3 3, which summarizes this section. The next handout is a short summary of this section. Check comprehension. See Handout 3 4A. This comprehension check is not graded. Now you re going to see whether you remember the main points that we ve discussed in this lesson. Please answer the questions on handout 3 4A. When you all finish, we ll review the answers together. Review the answers. See Handout 3 4B, the answer key. Lesson 3 13
14 Formatted: Header Measuring radon in residential properties Handout 3 1: Uranium decay series 1 Element Protons / neutrons Radiation emitted Half life on decay Uranium / 146 α + γ 4.5 billion years Thorium / 144 β + γ 24.5 days Protactinium / 143 β + γ 1.2 minutes Uranium / 142 α + γ 240,000 years Thorium / 140 α + γ 77,000 years Radium / 138 α + γ 1600 years Radon / 136 α + γ 3.8 days 1 Source: Environmental Assessment Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Human Health Fact Sheet, August decay series.pdf Lesson 3 14
15 Handout 3 2: Sample summary for hypothetical client Homes with high radon levels have been found all over the United States. Radon can also be a problem in any home old or new, drafty or well sealed, with or without a basement. Even neighboring homes may have very different radon levels. The Environmental Protection Agency recommends that all homes be tested for radon. Testing is the only accurate way to determine the radon level in any home. Radon may be present in soil gas, which is always entering your home. There are three requirements for radon to enter a home: 1. A radon source 2. A mechanism to transport radon from the source into the home 3. An opening or pathway in the home that allows radon to enter Radon sources include soil and rocks, groundwater from wells, and sometimes building materials. The main mechanism that carries radon into a home is a difference between indoor and outdoor air pressure. A home acts like a vacuum, sucking in soil gas that contains radon. This air pressure difference can arise from a temperature difference (the stack effect), from the use of mechanical systems such as exhaust fans, and from environmental effects, such as weather conditions. Pathways into the home may be natural (such as cracks in underlying rocks or sandy soil) or artificial (such as utility trenches). Pathways may differ in the ease with which air moves through them, the distance between the radon source and the home, and connections with other pathways. The radon level in a home depends on several factors. The strength of the radon sources: this is the most important factor in determining the level of radon in a home The distance of the radon sources from the home The ease with which radon can be transported into the home The home s ventilation (to a relatively small degree) Environmental factors (such as weather) Radon levels vary in space (from one geographic area to another and from home to home). They also vary in time (from season to season, day to day, and hour to hour). To repeat: The only way to know the radon level in your home is to test. Lesson 3 15
16 Handout 3 3: Summary Every home should be tested for radon. For radon to enter a home, there are three requirements: 1 Radon sources Soil and rock Groundwater Building materials 2 Mechanisms to transport radon into the home Air pressure differences o Stack effect o Mechanical systems o Environmental effects Diffusion Emanation Outgassing 3 Pathways for radon to enter the home Types o Natural o Artificial Characteristics o Ease with which air moves through the pathway o Distance from the radon source o Connection with other pathways Variation in radon levels in a home In space From one geographic area to another From home to home From level to level within a home In time From season to season From day to day From hour to hour With changes in the home Lesson 3 16
17 Handout 3 4A: Check your understanding Select the best answer from the choices below. Circle the correct answer. 1. If two homes are next to each other a. You can assume they have similar radon levels b. You can determine their radon levels using EPA maps c. You must test both homes to determine their radon levels d. You can measure the radon source and its distance from the homes and then calculate their radon levels 2. The most common radon sources in homes are a. Uranium refuse from mines and groundwater b. Rock and soil, groundwater, and building materials c. Rock and soil, reservoir water, and building materials d. Sand, gravel, and shale 3. The main mechanism for radon entry into a home is a. Air pressure difference between indoor and outdoor air b. Emanation c. Diffusion d. High winds blowing radon gas into the soil 4. Match the mechanism of radon entry with its definition. a. Air pressure difference i. Movement from area of higher concentration to area of lower concentration b. Diffusion ii. Difference in indoor and outdoor air pressure c. Emanation iii. Release of trapped gas from water d. Outgassing iv. Emission of gas from a surface by radioactive decay 5. The following factor does not contribute to the radon level in a home a. The strength of the radon sources b. The ease with which radon can be transported into the home c. Weather d. The distance of the home from its neighboring homes 6. The key characteristics of radon pathways are a. Ease of air movement, distance from radon source, and connections with other pathways b. Susceptibility to weather conditions, strength of radon source, and connections with other pathways c. Seasonal variation, temperature sensitivity, and alignment with radon source Lesson 3 17
18 7. One of the following statements is not true: a. Radon levels vary from one home to the next b. Radon levels vary from day to day c. Radon levels vary depending on the number of people in the household d. Radon levels vary depending on whether snow seals the area around a foundation Lesson 3 18
19 Handout 3 4B: Check your understanding Answer key The correct answers are shown in bold. 1. If two homes are next to each other a. You can assume they have similar radon levels b. You can determine their radon levels using EPA maps c. You must test both homes to determine their radon levels d. You can measure the radon source and its distance from the homes and then calculate their radon levels 2. The most common radon sources in homes are a. Uranium refuse from mines and groundwater b. Rock and soil, groundwater, and building materials c. Rock and soil, reservoir water, and building materials d. Sand, gravel, and shale 3. The main mechanism for radon entry into a home is a. Air pressure difference between indoor and outdoor air b. Emanation c. Diffusion d. High winds blowing radon gas into the soil 4. Match the mechanism of radon entry with its definition. a. Air pressure difference ii. Difference in indoor and outdoor air pressure c. Diffusion i. Movement from area of higher concentration to area of lower concentration c. Emanation iv. Emission of gas from a surface by radioactive decay d. Outgassing iii. Release of trapped gas from water 5. The following factor does not contribute to the radon level in a home a. The strength of the radon sources b. The ease with which radon can be transported into the home c. Weather d. The distance of the home from its neighboring homes 6. The key characteristics of radon pathways are a. Ease of air movement, distance from radon source, and connections with other pathways Lesson 3 19
20 b. Susceptibility to weather conditions, strength of radon source, and connections with other pathways c. Seasonal variation, temperature sensitivity, and alignment with radon source 7. One of the following statements is not true: a. Radon levels vary from one home to the next b. Radon levels vary from day to day c. Radon levels vary depending on the number of people in the household d. Radon levels vary depending on whether snow seals the area around a foundation Lesson 3 20
21 Resources Great Lakes Centers for Occupational and Environmental Safety and Health, School of Public Health, University of Illinois at Chicago UIC Radon Mitigation Course: An Illinois Specific Course. Accessed January 20, Kladder, Doug Radon Awareness for Public Service Professionals. Colorado Vintage Companies. Air Check Inc. Last updated December 16, 2002; accessed January 20, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Consumer s guide to radon reduction: How to fix your home. 402 K Revised February. Indoor Environments Division A Citizen s Guide to Radon: The Guide to Protecting Yourself and Your Family from Radon. EPA 402 K Revised May U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Radon Toxicity. Case Studies in Environmental Medicine. Lesson 3 21
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