Carbon Capture and Sequestration and its Potential Implementation in North Carolina. Sam Helton

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1 Carbon Capture and Sequestration and its Potential Implementation in North Carolina Sam Helton I. Introduction In continuation of its effort to address greenhouse gas emissions from existing fossil fuelfired electric generating units, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed a new rule in June 2014 known as the Clean Power Plan. 1 This rule furthers the unprecedented goal proposed in 2013 by consulting a wide range of states and stakeholders to establish two main elements: (1) state-specific emission rate-based carbon dioxide goals; and (2) guidelines for the development, submission and implementation of state plans. 2 Power plants currently emit the largest source of carbon pollution in the United States, accounting for roughly one-third of all domestic greenhouse gas emissions. 3 According to the Clean Power Plan, carbon dioxide capture and sequestration ( CCS ) is a viable option that could significantly contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, while enabling low-carbon electricity generation from new and current power plants. 4 The Clean Power Plan addresses the potential of CCS technology at new and existing electricity generating units. 5 The plan finds the technical potential of CCS for carbon dioxide emissions reductions to be over 90%, with smaller percentages in partial applications. 6 The application of partial CCS technology was found to be the best system of emissions reduction for 1 Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources: Electric Utility Generating Units, 79 Fed. Reg , (June 18, 2014) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. 60), available at [hereinafter 2014 Proposed Guidelines]. 2 See id. at EPA FACT SHEET: Clean Power Plan Overview, ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, 1 (June 13, 2014) available at 4 Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration: Overview, ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, 1 (Sept. 20, 2013) available at Proposed Guidelines, supra note 1, at

2 new power plants, but not for existing power plants. 7 Several potential problems keep CCS from being the best solution for all power plants. This paper will first explain the detailed process of CCS technology. Second, this paper details the positives and negatives associated with CCS. Third, this paper describes current CCS projects in the United States and Canada. Finally, this paper addresses the potential implementation of CCS in North Carolina. II. Process of Carbon Capture and Sequestration Carbon capture and sequestration is a set of multiple technologies designed specifically to reduce emissions from new and existing coal- and gas-fired power plants, as well as large industrial sources. 8 Even though a variety of stationary sources can implement CCS technology, research tends to focus on coal-fired plants because they comprise the largest stationary source of carbon dioxide in the United States. 9 CCS technology consists of three steps: (1) capture of carbon dioxide from the power plant or industrial source, (2) transport of the captured carbon dioxide to a storage site, and (3) underground injection and geologic sequestration of the carbon dioxide. 10 Carbon capture refers to the separation and removal of carbon dioxide from both point sources emissions and the atmosphere. 11 Three approaches exist to carbon capture: postcombustion capture, pre-combustion capture, and oxy-fuel combustion capture. 12 In postcombustion capture, the exhaust of the power plant is absorbed into a suitable liquid solvent and 7 8 Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration: Overview, supra note 4, at 1. 9 See Russell W. Murdock, Note: The State of Co[in 2 ]sequestration in the State of Texas, 41 TEX. ENVTL. L.J. 65, 67 (2010). 10 Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration: Overview, supra note 4, at 1 11 Murdock, supra note 9, at CCS: Capture, CARBON CAPTURE & STORAGE ASSOCIATION, 1 (2014) available at 2

3 the absorbed carbon dioxide is separated from the solvent and compressed for transportation. 13 In pre-combustion capture, the power plant s solid, liquid, or gas fuel is first converted into a mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide through either the process of gasification or reforming. 14 The carbon dioxide is then separated from the mixture and compressed for transportation. 15 Lastly, in oxy-fuel combustion capture, oxygen is separated from air prior to combustion, and the fuel is combusted in oxygen diluted with recycled flue-gas. 16 The high concentration of oxygen in the burning atmosphere results in final-flue gases consisting mainly of carbon dioxide and water, allowing for easier capture of the carbon dioxide. 17 To ensure efficient transportation, carbon dioxide is first compressed and condensed into a supercritical liquid state. 18 Next, pipelines transfer the liquid carbon dioxide to sequestration sites. 19 The pipeline network has proven to be a safe and secure method of transporting carbon dioxide. 20 The United States has a network of over 6,000 kilometers of pipelines, which have operated with an excellent safety record since the early 1970s. 21 The pipelines are similar in appearance to natural gas or water pipelines and are usually buried underground. 22 Once the carbon dioxide has traversed the pipelines, it is ready for underground storage Post-Combustion Capture, CARBON CAPTURE & STORAGE ASS N, (last visited Dec. 16, 2014). 14 Pre-Combustion Capture, CARBON CAPTURE & STORAGE ASS N, (last visited Dec. 16, 2014)( Reforming of gas is well-established and already used at scale at refineries and chemical plants around the world. Gasification is widely practiced around the world and is similar in some respects to that used for many years to make town gas. ) Oxy-Fuel Combustion Systems, CARBON CAPTURE & STORAGE ASS N, (last visited Dec. 16, 2014) Sarah A. Lishman, COMMENT: Deep in the Heart of Texas: How Carbon Sequestration Will Affect Valuation of the Subsurface, 45 ST. MARY S L. J. 283, 303 (2014) (explaining that a supercritical liquid is above its critical temperature and pressure, where distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist). 19 Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration: Overview, supra note CCS: Transport, CARBON CAPTURE & STORAGE ASS N, (last visited Dec. 16, 2014) Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration: Overview, supra note 4, at 1. 3

4 The final stage of CCS consists of underground injection and geologic sequestration of the liquid carbon dioxide into deep underground rock formations. 24 These formations are often a mile or more beneath the surface and consist of porous rock that allows for adequate storage of the gas. 25 Non-porous layers of rock lie above the formations preventing the carbon dioxide from escaping. 26 There are four main types of geological storage sites: (1) depleted oil and gas reservoirs, (2) deep saline formations, (3) unmineable coal seams, and (4) salt caverns. 27 Depleted oil and gas reservoirs are the most common and well-understood sequestration sites due to decades of exploration and mapping by the petroleum sector. 28 Not all reservoirs have been examined, but the Department of Energy s most recent review of the United States and Canada estimates the location of 138 billion metric tons of geologic storage potential between the two countries. 29 Deep saline formations consist of rocks saturated with water too saline for human consumption or for agricultural and industrial uses. 30 Much less is known about the geography of saline formations, due to industry s lack of experience with them as compared with oil and gas reservoirs. 31 The Department of Energy estimates that the United States contains deep saline formations with anywhere from three to twelve trillion metric tons of geologic carbon dioxide storage potential Nadine R. Hoffman, ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Emergence of Carbon Sequestration: Introduction and Annotated Bibliography of Legal Aspects for CCS, 29 PACE ENVTL. L. REV. 218, 219 (2011). 28 CCS: Storage, CARBON CAPTURE & STORAGE ASS N, (last visited Dec. 16, 2014). 29 Murdock, supra note 9, at CCS: Storage, supra note Murdock, supra note 9, at

5 Unmineable coal seams are mines that are either too deep or too thin to be economically mined. 33 When carbon dioxide is introduced to coal, the coal releases methane and absorbs the carbon dioxide. 34 This profitable methane helps to offset some of the costs of sequestering the carbon dioxide within the coal seams. 35 The Department of Energy s most recent review of the United States and Canada estimated the location of 157 billion to 178 billion metric tons of geologic carbon dioxide storage potential of unmineable coal seams. 36 Altogether in the United States, anywhere from 1,800 to 20,000 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide could be stored underground. 37 That is equivalent to 600 to 6,700 years of current levels of carbon dioxide emissions from large stationary sources within the United States. 38 III. Positives and Negatives of Carbon Capture and Sequestration There are several positives and negatives associated with the implementation of CCS technologies. Some of the positives are reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, contribution to oil and natural gas recovery, and contribution to increased energy generation. 39 On the other hand, some negatives include high implementation costs, amount of space required, and unknown long-term effects. 40 Electric power generation contributes to more than 40% of total carbon dioxide emissions in the United States. 41 Full application of currently available CCS technologies can dramatically reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 80% to 90% from power plants that burn fossil fuels. 42 A at Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration: Overview, supra note 4, at See Carbon Capture and Storage, CENTER FOR CLIMATE AND ENERGY SOLUTIONS, (last visited Dec. 16, 2014) Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration: Overview, supra note 4, at

6 500 megawatt coal-fired power plant emits roughly three million tons of carbon dioxide per year. 43 CCS technologies with a 90% reduction efficiency applied to a 500 megawatt power plant would avoid greenhouse gas emissions in amounts equivalent to ten years of carbon dioxide removal by sixty-two million trees, or total annual electricity-related emissions from more than 300,000 homes. 44 In addition to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, CCS technologies aid oil companies because captured carbon dioxide can be used in their secondary, tertiary, and enhanced oil recovery projects. 45 The carbon dioxide is first injected into an oil or natural gas reservoir after primary drilling efforts have been exhausted. 46 Next, the oil or natural gas is recovered and separated from the carbon dioxide. 47 Finally, the carbon dioxide is re-injected back into the well for storage. 48 The carbon dioxide bonds with residual oil that is unreachable with standard drilling, enhancing oil recovery and well productivity. 49 The profits generated from enhanced oil recovery offer a way to offset some of the costs associated with the implementation of CCS technologies at stationary power plants. 50 Greater oil and natural gas recovery increases fossil fuel generation of electricity. The Clean Power Plan allows states to meet their mandated goals by controlling the emissions output from stationary power sources. 51 Due to rising global demand for energy, the consumption of fossil fuels is expected to rise through 2035, leading to greater carbon dioxide emissions. 52 However, CCS technology allows the demands for fossil fuel consumption to be met, while Lishman, supra note 18, at at Proposed Guidelines, supra note 1, at Carbon Capture and Storage, supra note 39. 6

7 reducing carbon dioxide emissions to regulatory-permissible levels. 53 Existing coal power plants that implement CCS technology could provide 11% of United States electricity by 2030, and new coal power plants with CCS technology could account for 28% of new generating capacity by Without CCS, new coal power plants could only account for 11% of new generating capacity. 55 One difficulty in implementing CCS technologies is the cost. The EPA expects the cost of integrating a CCS system into an existing power plant would be substantial. 56 The cost is expected to be fairly high for the initial CCS projects; however, it is expected to decline once the technology moves along its learning curve. 57 For new integrated combined cycle power plants, the levelized cost of electricity ( LCOE ) is 97.8 dollars per megawatt-hour ( dollars/mwh ) without CCS and dollars/mwh with CCS. 58 For pulverized coal power plants, the LCOE is 75.0 dollars/mwh without CCS, and dollars/mwh with CCS. 59 For natural gas combined cycle power plants, the LCOE is 74.7 without CCS, and dollars/mwh with CCS. 60 Therefore, the overall costs of requiring CCS in all new power plants would be substantial and would affect the cost and supply of electricity on a national basis. 61 Another negative is the planning and space required to fully implement CCS technologies. Some existing stationary power plants have a limited footprint and may not have the land available to add a CCS system. 62 Existing sources also have a shorter expected plant life than new plants, which limits the time frame in which the plant can repay their investment in Proposed Guidelines, supra note 1, at Carbon Capture and Storage, supra note Proposed Guidelines, supra note 1, at

8 CCS equipment. 63 Furthermore, additional generation capacity of electricity is needed to power CCS equipment. 64 Since existing power sources tend to have lower efficiency in generating electricity, CCS will have a larger proportionate impact on net energy output for existing power sources than it would have for new power plants. 65 New power plants can be designed ready to install CCS equipment at any time, lowering the cost of later retrofitting it for CCS. 66 Lastly, the long-term safety of CCS has not been studied. Carbon dioxide is the most persistent greenhouse gas, meaning it must remain sequestered underground for centuries or longer until the impacts of CCS can be fully known. 67 According to EPA, the sequestered carbon dioxide has no way of finding its way into underground sources of drinking water. 68 EPA also suggests there is no way large amounts of carbon dioxide could suddenly escape and be released. 69 While there is sufficient evidence to suggest CCS is safe, EPA has not offered any concrete proof that CCS will remain safe in the long-term. 70 IV. Current Carbon Capture and Sequestration Projects in the United States and Canada Since CCS technology is fairly new, there are only a few large scale power plant CCS projects throughout the world. 71 Twenty-three large-scale power plant CCS projects currently exist in the planning stage worldwide, with two United States projects under construction, and one Canadian project recently opening as the world s first commercial scale CCS operation Carbon Capture and Storage, supra note Howard A. Latin, Blank Rome LLP Symposium: Decarbonization: A New Direction In Climate Change Policy?: Keynote Speaker: Climate Change Mitigation And Decarbonization, 25 VILL. ENVTL. L. J. 1, 47 (2014). 68 Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration: Overview, supra note Latin, supra note 64, at See Power Plant Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage Projects, CARBON CAPTURE & SEQUESTRATION MIT, (last visited Dec. 16, 2014). 72 8

9 These projects include Mississippi s Kemper County Energy Facility, Texas Petra Nova Carbon Capture Project, and Canada s Boundary Dam Integrated CCS Demonstration Project. 73 The Kemper County Energy Facility is a new integrated gasification combine cycle power plant located in Kemper County, Mississippi. 74 Currently under construction, it is scheduled to begin carbon dioxide capture in Lignite, or brown coal, provides the feedstock for power generation. 76 The Kemper power plant is equipped with pre-combustion CCS technology sufficient to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by up to 67%. 77 The plant has a carbon dioxide capture volume of three million tons per year, with the captured carbon dioxide being primarily used for enhanced oil recovery. 78 The remaining carbon dioxide will be stored within the Mississippi oil fields. 79 The Petra Nova Carbon Capture Project is designed to retrofit unit eight of the W.A. Parish power plant, located in Thompsons, Texas, with a post-combustion CCS system. 80 It is also currently under construction, and scheduled to become operational in Subbituminous coal will be processed in a pulverized coal boiler for power generation. 82 The plant s CCS system will use an advanced amine-based absorption technology to capture at least 90% of carbon dioxide from a 250 megawatt flue gas slipstream, which comprises part of the 650 megawatt pulverized coal-fired generating unit. 83 Overall, the device can capture 1.4 million tons of carbon dioxide per year, and the majority of the captured carbon dioxide will be used for Kemper County Energy Facility, GLOBAL CCS INSTITUTE (Aug. 8, 2014) Petra Nova Carbon Capture Project, GLOBAL CCS INSTITUTE (July 16, 2014)

10 enhanced oil recovery. 84 The remaining carbon dioxide will be stored in the West Ranch Oil Field in Jackson County, Texas. 85 Canada s Boundary Dam Carbon Capture Project is the world s first commercial scale implementation of CSS technology, which just recently launched on October 1, The $1.35 billion project transformed the old unit three at Boundary Dam Power Station into a reliable, long-term producer of 110 megawatts of base-load electricity each year. 87 The plant, located in Saskatchewan, Canada, will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by one million tons of carbon dioxide each year, which is the equivalent to taking more than 250,000 cars off Saskatchewan roads annually. 88 Brown coal is used for power generation and a post-combustion capture method is utilized to capture the carbon dioxide. 89 The captured carbon dioxide will be injected into nearby oil fields to enhance oil recovery. 90 The primary site of carbon dioxide storage is at the Weyburn Oil Unit, northwest of the Boundary Dam power station. 91 V. Potential Implementation of CCS in North Carolina In North Carolina, the electricity sector contributes to 41% of all greenhouse gas emissions. 92 Within the electricity sector, coal contributes to 98% of all emissions. 93 CCS technologies would be an ideal way to greatly reduce greenhouse gas emissions from North IEA hails historic launch of carbon capture and storage project. INTERNTIONAL ENERGY AGENCY (Oct. 1, 2014) available at 87 Boundary Dam CCS Project, SASKPOWER CCS, (last visited Dec. 16, 2014) Boundary Dam Integrated Carbon Capture and Sequestration Project, GLOBAL CCS INSTITUTE, (Sept. 26, 2014) 90 Boundary Dam CCS Project, supra note Boundary Dam Integrated Carbon Capture and Sequestration Project, supra note Eric Williams et al., Carbon Capture, Pipeline and Storage: A Viable Option for North Carolina Utilities?, NICHOLAS INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY SOLUTIONS, DUKE UNIVERSITY, 1, 4 (2007) available at

11 Carolina s coal-fired power plants. However, cost and lack of storage space pose potential problems for North Carolina s implementation of CCS technology. 94 Based on several assessments, geologic sequestration is not economically or technically feasible within North Carolina because very little storage capacity exists. 95 The best in-state options can only store up to million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide, which is only about three years worth of captured carbon dioxide. 96 Therefore, to employ any CCS projects in North Carolina, the captured carbon dioxide must be transported by pipelines to out-of-state storage locations. 97 The closest and most feasible out-of-state storage locations are Lower Potomac, Delaware, or Cape Fear, South Carolina. 98 North Carolina has eight existing coal-fired power plants that are potential retrofit candidates for CCS technologies. 99 Together these power plants have a combined electricity generation capacity of 11.2 gigawatts and the potential to capture million tons of carbon dioxide per year. 100 Based on a comprehensive study, optimization of CCS technologies throughout North Carolina yields a potential cost savings of roughly $2.3 billion. 101 Therefore, North Carolina implementation of CCS technologies could prove worthwhile, as long as there is sufficient planning and cooperation between potential carbon dioxide sources and storage sites at Darmawan Prasodjo & Lincoln Pratson, OptimaCCS Carbon Capture and Storage Infrastructure Optimization: North Carolina Case Study, NICHOLAS INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY SOLUTIONS, DUKE UNIVERSITY, 1, 10 (2012) available at at at

12 VI. Conclusion Carbon capture and sequestration technology proves to be a potentially viable option for North Carolina and the United States, as well as the rest of the world. Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel-burning stationary power sources must be reduced in order to comply with the EPA s continuing efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Cost, pipeline construction, and storage space are the most relevant obstacles for CCS. As the technology improves, and CCS becomes more relevant throughout the world, these obstacles should become easier to overcome. Because fossil fuels will remain a necessary power source for many years to come, CCS technology has the potential to become a beneficial and environmentally friendly option to comply with future environmental laws and standards. 12

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