Agriculture and greenhouse. Tom Denmead Research Fellow CSIRO Land and Water Professor G. W. Leeper Memorial Lecture Nov 24, 2006
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1 Agriculture and greenhouse Tom Denmead Research Fellow CSIRO Land and Water Professor G. W. Leeper Memorial Lecture Nov 24, 26
2 With help from Ben Macdonald & Ian White Australian National University, Canberra Glenn Bryant & David Griffith University of Wollongong, Wollongong Weijin Wang & Phil Moody QDNRM&W, Brisbane Deli Chen, Debra Turner, Zoe Loh, Ron Teo & Robert Edis University of Melbourne Robert Quirk & Bill Stainlay Cane farmers, Tweed Valley, NSW Charlton & Sandalwood Feedlots Australian Greenhouse Office Meat & Livestock Association
3 Greenhouse gas emissions in Australia -- National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (24) ESTIMATED EMISSIONS BY SECTOR, 24; TOTAL Mt CO2-e 3 2 5% Agriculture second only to power houses Mt CO2-e 1 13% 16% 5% 5% 6% 3% Stationery Energy Transport Fugitive Emissions Industrial Processes Agriculture Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry Waste
4 Greenhouse gas emissions in Australia Trends since 199 Mt CO2-e ESTIMATED EMISSIONS BY SECTOR, 24 & The Government says that Australia is well on the way to meeting its Kyoto target, an increase of 8% over 199 The increase to 24 was only 2.3% However, that was due largely to a one-off reduction in land clearing Without that, emissions have increased by 25% Stationery Energy Transport Fugitive Emissions Industrial Processes Agriculture Land Use, Land Use Change Waste Agriculture shows virtually no change
5 Greenhouse gas emissions in Australia -- National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (24) AGRICULTURE SECTOR EMISSIONS IN TOTAL 93.1 Mt CO 2 -e Manure Management 3 Mt Agricultural Soils 18.7 Mt Rice Cultivation.4 Mt Enteric Fermentation 62 Mt Burning of Savannas 11.8 Mt Burning of Agricultural Residues.3 Mt
6 Greenhouse gas emissions in Australia -- National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (24) AGRICULTURE EMISSIONS BY GREENHOUSE GAS IN 24 Nitrous Oxide 21.3 Mt CO 2 -e (86.1% of national N 2 O emissions) Methane 71.9 Mt CO 2 -e (6.1% of national CO 2 emissions)
7 The AGO Program on Greenhouse Action in Regional Australia Some funding from the ARC, R&D Corporations and State Agencies, but the Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO) is the main funding body in Australia for research into greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. The AGO manages a 4-year Strategic R&D Investment Plan of targeted research on: managing GHG emissions and responding to climate change in agriculture and natural resource management with 18 projects Projects include satellite tracking of GHG emissions from agricultural soils measurements of GHG emissions from various agricultural enterprises developments of new measurement techniques, e.g., open-path IR systems and methods for measuring enteric CH 4 emissions life cycle assessments assessments of indirect greenhouse gas emissions (SO 2, NH 3, NO x ) building management options into decision support tools Investment AGO, >$3M Partners, $16M
8 AGO projects discussed in this lecture (illustrative of new technologies being applied) Greenhouse gas fluxes from sugarcane soils and nitrogen fertilizer management Open-path systems (Laser and FTIR) for the measurement of greenhouse gases from land-managed systems The missing gases: measuring emissions of indirect greenhouse gases from agriculture
9 Greenhouse gases and sugarcane soils Australian sugarcane soils characterised by: high soil moisture regimes high soil temperatures high levels of available carbon (from trash retention) high levels of soil nitrogen (from high fertiliser rates) These conditions are conducive to formation of the gases nitrous oxide and methane, have a strong influence on carbon dioxide exchange and carbon sequestering
10 The gases Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) high soil temperatures, high soil moisture and high carbon should increase soil respiration, but models say they might also promote higher carbon sequestration Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) produced under aerobic and anaerobic conditions production stimulated by high temperatures, high soil moisture contents, high soil nitrogen and a carbon source global warming potential 31 times that of CO 2 Methane (CH 4 ) formed under anaerobic, waterlogged conditions formation stimulated by high temperatures and a carbon source global warming potential 21 times that of CO 2
11 Previous studies Chamber measurements by Weier et al. (Aust. J. Agric. Res.,1996) and Weier (Aust J. Agric Res., 1998) Australian sugarcane soils emit 1kT N 2 O-N y -1 equivalent to1/3 of all N 2 O emissions from agricultural soils in the country; emissions from acid sulfate sugarcane soils are larger than from other soils used more commonly for sugarcane production; 8.9kT CH 4 y -1 are emitted from Australian sugarcane soils after burning, but 45kT CH 4 y -1 are consumed by trash blankets. Micrometeorological measurements by Denmead et al. (Proc. Aust. Soc. Sugarcane Technol., 25) large losses of N 2 O from acid sulfate sugarcane soils when wet; small losses when dry. These measurements are short-term, covering only a few days and not extending through the whole growing season
12 Conclusions from previous studies Dalal et al. (23) reviewed available data on N 2 O emission from Australian agricultural lands and stated: Improved estimates of N 2 O emission from agricultural lands and mitigation options can be achieved by a directed national research program that is of considerable duration, covers sampling season and climate, and combines different techniques (chamber and micrometeorological) using high precision analytical instruments and simulation modelling.
13 Present investigations A 3-year project to measure long-term (whole of growing season) emissions of greenhouse gases from sugarcane soils Uses chambers and micrometeorological techniques for emissions of CO 2, N 2 O and CH 4 Automatic chambers used to provide continuous measurements of emissions from the soil surface, validate micrometeorological techniques, assess soil variability Manual chambers used to provide background emissions, study treatment effects throughout growing season Micrometeorological techniques: continuous measurements of exchanges of the 3 gases between crop and atmosphere
14 Present investigations Measurements to be made for I year at each of 2 sites located at Murwillumbah (burnt cane) and Mackay (green cane harvesting) Measurements commenced on ratoon crop of sugarcane on an acid sulfate soil at Murwillumbah in October, 25 and were continuous through the whole growing season, 342 days Both the soil type and the farming practice at Mackay are more representative of the industry than those at Murwillumbah
15 Murwillumbah site Acid sulfate soil subject to flooding at Blacks Drain on farm of Bill Stainlay at Murwillumbah, in valley of Tweed River in northern NSW: topsoil organic clay loam with 5%C, ph < 4, pore space 6% subsoil 85% clay, water table to.7m
16 Automatic chamber technique Used to provide continuous measurements of emissions from the soil surface, validate micrometeorological techniques, assess soil variability Operation 6 chambers lids closed in turn for 18 min every 3h Measurement air from chamber circulated through FTIR spectrometer and rate of increase in CO 2, N 2 O, CH 4 measured
17 Automatic chambers 6 N 2 O emission measured by 6 automatic chambers ngn m -2 s Emissions of N 2 O from 3 chambers after 16kg urea-n ha Oct 27-Oct 28-Oct 29-Oct 3-Oct 31-Oct
18 Micrometeorological techniques: eddy covariance (uses fast-response sensors; measurements made 1 times per second) LICOR open-path CO 2 /H 2 O sensor c Flux = wc CSAT sonic anemometer w
19 Eddy covariance measurements of CO 2 exchange and evaporation in sugarcane field Flux of CO2 (mg m -2 s -1 ) Flux of water vapor (mm h -1 ) Dec 28-Dec 3-Dec 1-Jan Dec 28-Dec 3-Dec 1-Jan
20 Micrometeorological techniques: flux-gradient (uses 3-min averages rather than instantaneous data; no fast-response sensors available for most non-co 2 gases) H e i g h t Flux Fc = K cc / z Concentration T Turbulent transport coefficient K T calculated from measurements of atmospheric dispersion Concentration gradient
21 N 2 O fluxes over bare field 8 days after 16kg urea-n, using flux-gradient technique and FTIR 6 N 2 O flux, Oct 26-Oct 31, 25 ngn m -2 s Rain 9.6mm Rain 1.2m 26-Oct 27-Oct 28-Oct 29-Oct 3-Oct 31-Oct Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometers measure concentrations of a suite of greenhouse gases simultaneously Above, N 2 O emissions increasing over time, but marked diurnal cycles Points to the need for continuous sampling measurements at one or even a few times a day (common practice with chamber systems) misleading
22 Micrometeorological trace-gas flux station Continuous half-hourly, measurements throughout the growing season: Exchange of direct greenhouse gases (CO 2, N 2 O, CH 4 ) and indirect greenhouse gases (NH 3, NO x, SO 2 ) between crop and atmosphere using eddy covariance, FTIR and trace-gas analysers Water, heat, momentum fluxes Meteorology (radiation, wind, stability, rainfall) Soil water and soil temperature Features: Solar-powered field instrumentation Automatic, remote control On-line processing and data transfer via internet and modem to centres in Wollongong and Canberra
23 Validation : Testing the eddy covariance system 8 6 LE, Oct Sep 2 26 Energy closure, Dec Sep y =.83x R 2 =.8968 W m H+LE (W m -2 ) Oct 4-Dec 2-Feb 3-Apr 2-Jun 1-Aug 3-Sep The eddy covariance system gives us direct measurements of the rates of heat loss from the crop, and its evaporation and CO 2 exchange. Above,!/2 hour measurements of crop evaporation through the growing season. The average rate was 3.1mm d -1 and the total evaporation was 189 mm The system also provides the transfer coefficient h to use in the flux-gradient measurements of emissions of N 2 O and CH Rn-G-S (W m -2 ) We test the accuracy of the system by comparing its recovery of the energy fluxes from the crop, i.e., the sum of the evaporation and heat loss, with the solar energy available to drive these processes. After corrections for sensor separation, we recover about 9% of the available energy
24 Validation: Daily CO 2 fluxes from 6 automatic chambers and eddy covariance system in first 2 weeks M/MET.15 mg m -2 s /1/5 22/1/5 25/1/5 28/1/5 31/1/5 CO 2 emission from the soil predominates in the early stages of the ratoon crop 2 to 1 variability in chamber fluxes, but their average close to micrometeorological fluxes (blue)
25 Validation: Nitrous oxide fluxes from chambers and micrometeorology after 16kg urea-n ha M/MET.5 kgn ha -1 d /1/5 22/1/5 25/1/5 28/1/5 31/1/5 As for CO 2, 2 to 1 variability in chamber fluxes, but their average close to micrometeorological fluxes Rapid rise in N 2 O flux:.1 to.5 kgn ha -1 d -1 in 15 days
26 CO 2 exchange: eddy covariance measurements CO 2 flux, Oct Sep 2 26 mg m -2 s LICOR Missing Oct 4-Dec 2-Feb 3-Apr 2-Jun 1-Aug 3-Sep Half-hourly averages of CO 2 flux between crop and atmosphere throughout the growing season Flux changes from positive (into the atmosphere) to negative (from the atmosphere) as the crop grows and photosynthesis dominates over soil respiration
27 CO 2 exchange: contributions from soil and atmosphere.5 Average daily CO2 exchange fertilized chambers control chambers above crop from soil mg m -2 s net exchange from atmosphere -1 8/16/5 1/15/5 12/14/5 2/12/6 4/13/6 6/12/6 A large proportion of the CO 2 sequestered by the crop comes from the soil, approximately 4% The estimated net assimilation of CO 2 is ~ 5 g m -2 d -1 Addition of urea fertilizer has virtually no effect on soil CO 2 emission
28 N 2 O emission: flux-gradient technique kgn ha -1 d N 2 O emission, 14 Oct 25-2 Sep 26 Micrometeorology Controls (chambers) 1-Oct 3-Nov 29-Jan 3-Mar 29-May 28-Jul 26-Sep Prolonged and substantial emissions of N 2 O lasting for >5 months after fertilising Emissions of N 2 O from unfertilised plots also substantial, but N pool exhausted more quickly
29 Soil moisture and N 2 O emission Average daily N2O kgn ha -1 flux (ngn m -2 s -1 ) Cumulative N 2 O emission and rainfall 2 1-Oct 3-Dec 3-Mar 28-Jun 26-Sep Effect of WFPS on N 2 O emission WFPS (%) No fertiliser Fertilised Rain Rain (mm) Water-filled pore space (WFPS) describes the degree of saturation There is a peak in emission rates between 7 and 8% N 2 O production is known to be at its maximum in this range Hence,N 2 O emission increases with rainfall, except for controls where N supply limited
30 Soil moisture and CH 4 emission Average daily CH4 (kg ha -1 ) flux (ng m -2 s -1 ) Effect of WFPS on CH 4 emission WFPS (%) CH 4 emission & rainfall, 342 days CH4 Rain 1-Oct 3-Dec 3-Mar 28-Jun 26-Sep Rainfall (mm) CH 4 emissions more difficult to measure because of large natural background Little correlation between CH 4 emission and WFPS of surface soil But strong coupling with rainfall indicates some dependence on soil wetness Suggests production deeper in profile.
31 Summary Net greenhouse gas emissions CO 2 Emissions from soil: Manual chambers, 57 t/ha? Uptake from atmosphere: Micrometeorology, 11 t/ha N 2 O Emissions from fertilized soil: Micrometeorology, 44 kgn/ha Emissions from unfertilized soil Manual chambers, 13 kgn/ha? CH 4 Emissions from fertilized soil: Micrometeorology, 53 kg/ha Net emissions to atmosphere, CO 2 equivalents t ha -1 CO 2-11 N 2 O 21 CH 4 1 Emission factors % NGGI and IPCC 1.25 Present study 19 Question: What mechanisms cause these remarkable rates? Are they physical, biological, chemical?
32 Summary Emission factors used by NGGI % Pastures.4 Irrigated crops 2.1 Non-irrigated crops.3 Cotton.5 Horticulture and vegetables 2.1 Sugarcane 1.25 Our investigation 19 Questions 1. What mechanisms cause these remarkable rates in our study? Are they physical, biological, chemical? 2. The usual assumption is that crops are CO 2 neutral; what they take from the atmosphere is eventually returned there. However, our data shows that even if this was the case, there was a net emission of 22t CO2-e through nitrous oxide and methane. Is ethanol production from sugarcane really green? We must wait one more year
33 CSIRO Land and Water Name O.T. Denmead Title Research Fellow Phone (eg ) tom.denmead@csiro.au Web Thank You Contact CSIRO Phone Web enquiries@csiro.au
34 Open-path technologies for measuring greenhouse gas emissions: laser and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) systems Lasers measure line-averaged gas concentrations up to 1km, FTIR less Lasers: tripod-mounted, stand alone, battery-operated units; FTIR requires mains power and liquid N Both suitable for point, line and small area sources Lasers are tuned to individual gases, CO 2,CH 4 and NH 3 ; FTIR measures all the gases of interest (CO 2, N 2 O, NH 3, CH 4 ) simultaneously and has better sensitivities
35 Tests: Releases Daisy our virtual cow 4m x 15m grid of permeable pipe CH 4, N 2 O, NH 3 released from cylinders through mass-flow controllers Tests conducted of recoveries from point source and plane source emissions 4m x 15m grid of permeable pipes
36 Applications: Turning concentration measurements into surface emission rates -- inferring emissions with a backward Lagrangian stochastic (bls) dispersion analysis Use a dispersion model to trace particles backwards from sensor to their origins inside and outside the source area. Surface fluxes calculated from number of touchdowns in the two areas Uses a computer package called WindTrax to calculate surface fluxes Suitable for point, line or area sources (any shape) Inputs: geometry of source area, height and location of sensor, wind speed and direction, atmospheric stability, gas concentrations upwind and downwind
37 Recoveries using WindTrax mg NH3 s Ammonia laser 2m downwind of grid, Aug 2, 25 Released Measured Top: Recovery by laser of NH 3 released from ground level grid, 25m x 25m Laser 2m downwind of grid 12: 13: 14: 15: 16: Recovery tests for CH 4 over 1 hour, Aug 3, 25 Path 128m NH3 released at 5L min mg CH4 s Cylinder Laser #112 Laser #113 FTIR-CH4 Bottom: Recovery by 2 lasers and FTIR of CH4 released from ground level grid, 4m x 15m Path 14m
38 Applications: CH 4 emission from 16 grazing dairy cows Reflector Triangular field Wind direction Meteorology Touchdowns The calculated CH 4 emissions agree well with inventory estimates The study now extended to feedlots with ~ 2, cattle
39 Applications: Measuring emissions of N gases from a fertilized field NH 3 N 2 O Measure lineaveraged gas concentrations upwind and downwind; apply bls theory through WindTrax
40 Applications: Measuring losses of ammonia from a fertilized maize field in China The portability of the laser systems makes them very attractive for field work in remote locations Open path technologies provide us with a suite of new, sensitive and flexible options that will allow us to measure greenhouse gas emissions in many on-farm operations where emissions could not be determined previously 6 Emission Area covered.8 NH3 loss (ugn m -2 s -1 ) 4 2 9: 1:3 12: 13:3 15: 16:3 18: NEO laser, Yongji, July 13, Fraction of test area covered
41 CSIRO Land and Water Name O.T. Denmead Title Research Fellow Phone (eg ) tom.denmead@csiro.au Web Thank You Contact CSIRO Phone Web enquiries@csiro.au
42 The Missing Gases: Trace Gas Station Other gases, notably the nitrogen gases, ammonia (NH 3 ) and the oxides of nitrogen (NO x ) play important roles in the greenhouse story, but are missing from most inventories IPCC estimates that indirect N 2 O emissions due to atmospheric deposition of N-compounds formed from NH 3 and NO x originating from agriculture are as large as the direct emissions from agricultural soils or from animal production systems Monitoring the yearly cycle of these emissions will be as important as monitoring those of N2O, both in greenhouse terms and in terms of the nitrogen budget This trace gas station is airconditioned and houses gas analysers and a data logger for measurement of fluxes of indirect greenhouse gases NH 3 and NO x, as well as SO 2 and H 2 S
43 The Missing Gases: The trace gas station is trailer mounted and is being used in projects in Victoria New South Wales and Queensland 1-minute ammonia concentrations above cane field and feedlot ppb Cane field Feedlot ppb Contrasts in air quality: atmospheric NH3 concentrations over feedlots are hundreds of times those over agricultural fields : 6: 12: 18: :
44 CSIRO Land and Water Name O.T. Denmead Title Research Fellow Phone (eg ) tom.denmead@csiro.au Web Thank You Contact CSIRO Phone Web enquiries@csiro.au
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