Module 5 Measurement and Processing of Meteorological Data

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1 Module 5 Measurement and Processing of Meteorological Data 5.1 Evaporation and Evapotranspiration Measurement of Evaporation Pan Evaporimeters Processing of Pan Evaporation Data Estimation of Lake Evaporation from Pan Measurements Estimation of Evapotranspiration Remote Sensing Measurements of Evaporation and Evapotranspiration 5.2 Temperature Data Processing of Temperature Data 5.3 Relative Humidity Processing of Relative Humidity Data 5.4 Measurement of Wind Speed 5.5 Sunshine Duration 5.6 Closure References Keywords: Evaporation, Evapotranspiration, Pan Evaporimeters, Temperature Data, Relative Humidity, Wind Speed, Sunshine Duration The objectives of this module are: to discuss techniques of acquisition, validation, and processing of evaporation and evapotranspiration data; to discuss measurement of other meteorological data used in hydrology, namely, temperature relative humidity, wind speed, and sunshine duration. Besides precipitation, the other hydro-meteorological variables, such as evaporation, temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, and sunshine hours, are also important in studies relating to water resources development and management. The acquisition and processing of these data is discussed in this module. 5.1 EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION Evaporation and transpiration constitute the primary abstractions of water from the hydrologic cycle. It will be helpful to define these first. Evaporation is the process by which water is changed from the liquid or solid state into the gaseous state due to the involvement of heat energy. Evaporation is an important component of the hydrologic cycle, since a large fraction of the precipitation is returned to the atmosphere by this process. Transpiration is a natural process occurring in plants in which water is picked up from the soil moisture storage by the plant roots. This water is used in photosynthesis and it is finally evaporated from stomata which are the pores found in the leaf and stem epidermis of the plants and are used for gas exchange.

2 Evaporation takes place mainly due to heat energy and plants play the main role in transpirations. The combined effect of evaporation and transpiration is termed as evapotranspiration (ET). In hot climates, the transfer of water to atmosphere by evaporation from rivers, canals and surface-water storages (reservoirs & ponds) is of interest to hydrologists since evaporation is a significant proportion of all water supplies. It is significant and is concern in the sense that most of the water withdrawn from the sources for beneficial uses ultimately returns to streams and aquifers and becomes available for reuse, while the loss of water due to evaporation is entirely lost from the usable supply, at least for considerable time. Over large land areas in India, about two thirds of the annual precipitation is lost to atmosphere through evapotranspiration. In arid regions of India, evapotranspiration may be even more significant and up to 90 per cent of the annual rainfall may be lost to the atmosphere. Problem of evaporation is more serious in periods of droughts when aridity is high. Storage reservoirs expose large water surfaces to direct radiation which causes evaporation and thus large quantity of water may be lost, particularly during hot and dry season. During flood season, reservoirs may lessen evaporation because water is confined to deep storages rather than thinly spreading over wide flood plains. The meteorological factors controlling evaporation are air and water temperature, wind speed, atmospheric pressure, incoming solar radiation, humidity, and saturation vapor pressure deficit. In addition, water quality, depth, soil type and nature also influence evaporation. Meteorological factors that affect transpiration are essentially the same as for evaporation. In addition, vapour pressure gradient, available soil moisture and plant properties also affect transpiration. There is an important difference between ET and free surface evaporation. Transpiration is associated with plant growth (trees in a mature forest may grow slowly) and hence ET takes place only when the plant is growing. Thus transpiration has diurnal and seasonal variations. Consequently, ET will have seasonal variations. Evaporation also has large seasonal variations due to changes in radiation received and in other meteorological inputs Measurement of Evaporation Selection of a method for estimation of evaporation depends on the study area and its properties. Evapotranspiration from small water bodies and soil can be estimated with reasonable accuracy. However, direct measurement of evaporation and evapotranspiration from large water bodies or catchments is not possible with present technology. For this purpose, indirect methods are applied and they give acceptable results. Evaporation pans and lysimeters are used for this purpose. For existing reservoirs and plots or small catchments, estimates can be made by water budget, energy-budget, and aerodynamic approaches. These latter techniques are discussed only from the point of view of instruments and observational requirements.

3 5.1.2 Pan Evaporimeters To estimate evaporation from open water bodies, evaporation of water from small pans filled with water is measured and it is assumed that evaporation from lake and pan are closely related. The shape of the pans could be either square or circular; ; it may be mounted above the ground or sunk in the ground so that the water level is approximately that off the ground. In a large lake, pans may be mounted on floating platforms anchored at appropriate locations. Two types of pans are use most commonly: thee United States Weather Bureau Class A pan and the Russian GGI-3000 pan; a device known ass the 20 m 2 tank is also used in Russian Federation. The U.S.. Weather Bureau Class A pan is widely used throughout the world and has been recommended by WMO and the International Association off Hydrological Sciences as a referencee instrument. Performance of this pan has been studiedd under a range of climatic conditions and wide limits of latitude and elevation. Thee GGI-3000 pan and 20 m 2 tank are used in the Russian Federation and some other countries with differentt climatic conditions as they possess reliable operational qualities and a stable relationship with the meteorological elements that influence evaporation (WMO 2008). World over, the US Class A pan is most common followed by GGI 3000 pan. WMO sponsored comparative observations (WMO, 1976) of the Class A pan, the GGI-3000 pan and the 20 m 2 tank in several countries, which eventually led to some operational recommendations on the suitability of these pans in diverse climaticc and physiographic conditions. In India, the US Weather Bureau Class A pan is the standard d tool to measure evaporation. It is a circular pan, 1.22 m in diameter and m deep. The pan iss mounted on a white painted wooden stand (Fig. 5.1) and is covered by a wire mesh to prevent loss of water due to birds and animals. The inner base and sides of the pan are painted white. A stilling well is placed in the pan and inside it is a pointer gauge. Measurement mustt take account of evaporation losses and also gains due to rainfall. Fig. 5.1 U.S. Weather Bureau class A land pan.

4 The major difficulty in using a Class A pan for the direct measurement of evaporation arises because of the use of coefficients to convert the measurements from a small tank to large bodies of open water. When installing evaporation pans it is important to ensure that the site of the pan is level and free of obstruction. To the extent feasible, the ground cover should be maintained as close as possible to the natural cover common in the area. Obstructions such as trees, buildings, shrubs or instrument shelters should not be closer than four times the height of the object. The pan should never be placed on a concrete slab, asphalt floor or gravel. The pan should be installed in such a way that no object casts any shadow over the pan at any time. The recommended minimum size of the plot where pan is installed should be 15 m x 20 m. The plot should be fenced to protect the instruments and to prevent birds and animals from drinking the pan water. The fence should be constructed so that it does not affect the wind structure over the pan. A barbed wire or iron mesh fence is preferred. It may be necessary to prevent birds and small animals from drinking water by using chemical repellants (these should not pollute water) in addition to a wire mesh. To estimate the error introduced by the wire-mesh screen on the wind field and thermal characteristics of the pan, readings from the protected pan should be compared with those of a standard pan at a nearby site. It is a good practice to install additional instruments along with a pan, such as an anemometer to measure wind movement over the pan, a precipitation gauge, and thermometers to measure temperature of pan water and surrounding air. The inner side of the pan is painted white. The water level in the pan changes due to evaporation and rainfall. On days without rain, at daily (or twice-daily) reading time, water is poured into the pan using a graduated cylinder to bring the level precisely to the top of the pointer gauge. The volume of water added is recorded and represents the depth of evaporation. On the days when rain has fallen since the last observation, the rainfall may exceed evaporation and water may have to be removed from the pan to bring the level to the hook level. The adjacent rain gauge is used to measure the rainfall. It there is a forecast of heavy rainfall on a given day, a measured amount of water may be removed from the pan in advance so as to avoid pan overflow. The water level in the pan must be measured accurately before and after water is added. The water level may be determined by means of a hook gauge consisting of a movable scale and vernier fitted with a hook, enclosed in a stilling well in the pan. An alternative arrangement is to use a float. A calibrated container is used to add or remove water at each observation so as to maintain the water level to a pre-specified depth. The amount of evaporation (E in mm) between two successive observations is the difference in water level in the pan. It is corrected for any precipitation during the period:

5 E = P d (5.1) where P is the depth of precipitation during the period between the two measurements, and d is the depth of water added (+) to or removed ( ) from the pan. Pan evaporation provides an estimate of open water evaporation. Evaporation data from pans are frequently used to estimate evaporation from water bodies, such as lakes and reservoirs and evapotranspiration from an area. But a pan is a really small in size and its material is different than a natural body. Hence its heat storage characteristics and air dynamics will be quite different than a large water body. Therefore, evaporation from a pan will be higher than a large open water body. An estimate of lake or reservoir evaporation (E R ) is obtained by multiplying the pan evaporation by a coefficient which is called the pan coefficient: E R = K P E pan (5.2) where K P is the pan coefficient; E R is the depth of evaporation from the reservoir and E pan is the pan evaporation, both in mm/day. The value of pan coefficient depends on climate, geographical location, season, size, and depth of the water body. This coefficient generally varies from 0.6 to 0.8. Lower values are typical of dry seasons and arid climates while higher values are appropriate for humid climates. In the absence of better estimates, a value of 0.7 for the pan coefficient may be used. Some automatic evaporation pans are also in use. In these pans, water level is kept constant by automatically releasing water into the pan from a storage tank or by removing water from the pan in the case of precipitation. A record of the amount of water added to or removed from the pan is maintained Processing of Pan Evaporation Data Like any other instrument and measurement, errors may arise in pan observations. Errors may crop up due to observer s mistakes and instrument errors. Leakage from sides or bottom, particularly from old pans is not uncommon. Errors in the data may be detected as follows: The maximum value of evaporation in the region is used as the first check to screen doubtful measurements. The observer may over-or under-fill the pan on a particular day. Such values may be compensated for on the next day but the value for the current day will be wrong. Among the instrument errors, leakage is the most serious problem and it occurs usually at the joint between the pan base and side wall. Small leaks are difficult to detect but may have a significant systematic effect on evaporation totals over extended period such as a

6 mouth. Where leakage has been detected, the pan evaporation records for a period of a few months preceding the detection of leakage should be inspected carefully and marked as suspect. Animals and birds may be able to drink water from the pan especially if the covering wire mesh is damaged. Algae and dirt in the water will reduce the rate of evaporation. Errors arise in periods of high rainfall when the depth caught by the rain gauge is different from the rain fallen in the pan as a result of splash or wind eddies. To detect error in pan evaporation data which may arise due to the above reasons, warning and maximum limits on evaporation are fixed. Pan evaporation measurements are less accurate during the periods of heavy rains but during these periods the rate of evaporation is also less. Excessively high evaporation values during days should be flagged as doubtful and should be subject to further validation Estimation of Lake Evaporation from Pan Measurements The evaporation from pans installed above the ground is influenced by the characteristics of the pan. Sunken pans are subject to undetected leaks, accumulation of biomass and debris on the water surface, and boundary conditions which are different from those of a large lake. Pans exposed above the ground are subject to heat exchange through the sides and to other effects that do not occur in lakes. Floating pans are subject to splash-in and splash-out of water, and are costly to install and operate. Pans have much less heat storage than lakes and experience a different annual cycle of evaporation, with pan-evaporation extremes occurring earlier than the natural water body. Reliable estimates of annual lake evaporation can be obtained by multiplying the annual pan evaporation by the appropriate pan-to-lake coefficient. The pan-to-lake coefficient for a particular pan can be determined by comparison with actual lake evaporation or with a large pan sunken to simulate a lake. Variation of the pan coefficient with climate is determined by comparisons of evaporation from large and small pans under different field conditions. On the basis of the experiments conducted in Russia and other countries the pan coefficients were found to range between 0.70 and 1.0. Another method is the adjustment of the pan evaporation for heat gain or loss through the sides and bottom. An example of this method is the technique in estimating evaporation by using data from the Class A evaporation pan. In humid seasons and climates, the pan water temperature is higher than the air temperature, and the pan coefficient may be 0.80 or higher. In dry seasons and arid areas, the pan water temperature is less than air temperature, and the coefficient may be 0.60 or less. A coefficient of 0.70 is assumed to be applicable when water and air temperatures are equal.

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