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1 Air Pollution Control For znfectious Waste Incineration Medical waste incinerators have gone from being uncontrolled to having multistage air pollution control equipment. by Robert P. Newman, PE 68 POLLUTION ENGINEERING OCTOBER 1991 The health care industry in this country is in the middle of a waste crisis regarding the safe disposal of infectious waste material. Disposal options for hospitals, clinics, laboratories, pharmaceutical companies, health care practitioners and similar institutions have been greatly limited by federal, state and local regulations. By far the most effective means of treating infectious waste material is incineration. Proper incineration sterilizes infectious waste, reduces waste volumes by more than 90 percent, and in some cases provides the economic benefits of heat recovery. On-site incineration also minimizes the costs of waste handling and transportation and reduces the liability associated with taking waste off site. The incineration process is not without controversy, however. All incinerators, including those treating.medical waste, have been highly scrutinized because of the air pollutants emitted. Infectious waste incinerators can produce emissions of particulate matter both respirable and non-respirable, metals, organic compounds, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides. Biological agents including spores, viruses and associated pathogens also can be emitted. Because of the emphasis on advanced air pollution control to reduce these emissions, it is increasingly important for the solid waste professional to understand control technology options. Air pollution control required by many states resuits in capital costs greatly exceeding the cost of an incineration unit alone. Although sophisticated control systems are being mandated primarily for new incineration units, there is a trend toward requiring similar control for modified and retrofitted incinerators, as well. Air pollutants As with any combustion source, the pollutants of concern from medical waste incinerations are produced from the waste feed material or are formed in the combustion process. Major pollutants include: Particulate matter. Particulate emissions from any combustion process are determined by three factors: suspension of non-combustible materials; incomplete combustion of combustible materials; and condensation of vaporous emissions. Metals. Metal emissions are determined by the nature of waste being incinerated. Some metals contained in waste are converted to metallic oxides during combustion and are emitted as a submicron particulate. Other metals, such as lead, volatilize during the combustion process and subsequently condense on small particulate present in the flue gas. Organic matter. Theoretically, all organic material can be completely oxidized to water (H20) and carbon dioxide (CO,) during the combustion process. In any incineration process, however, complete combustion never occurs. The results are so-called products of incomplete combustion (PIC), which can include toxic compounds such as dioxins and furans. Carbon monoxide. As with organic compounds, carbon monoxide (CO) is also the result of incomplete combustion. Combustion conditions that result in PIC formation also will produce carbon monoxide. Formation of carbon monoxide is primarily dictated by the oxygen concentration, degree of mixing of fuellair, and temperature. Acid gases. For any type of medical waste incinerator, the principle acid gas of concern is hydrogen chloride (HCl). The determining factor for HCl formation is a source of chlorine. Nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen oxides are formed during the combustion process. Nitrogen can either be provided from the waste material or supplied from nitrogen in combustion air. Air pollution control There are three ways to control air pollutants from waste incinerators: controlling feed material, controlling combustion, and add-on air pollution control systems. Controlling feed material consists of
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3 eliminating certain materials either by segregating for separate disposal or for recycling. Typical materials that can be segregated include metal-bearing waste such as syringes and other non-combustible material. Combustion control is paramount for any incineration system. Optimizing combustion consists of regulating temperatures, excess air rates, mixing, and retention time to maximize the thermal oxidization of the waste. Improving combustion can dramatically lower emissions of particulate, organics and CO. Other pollutants, however, such as HC1, metals, and sulfur oxides (SO,) are little affected by combustion controls. Add-on pollution control can be basically categorized into wet scrubbers, dry scrubbers and fabric filtration. Electrostatic precipitation has not been widely used to date and so will not be included here. For most installations, required levels of control dictate using a combination of technologies to attain emissions limitations. Wet scrubbers Three basic varieties of wet scrubbing systems are used on medical waste incinerators: venturi, packed-bed and spray tower scrubbers. Venturi scrubbers are used primarily to control particulate and gaseous emissions. Packedbed units reduce acid gas emissions. Spray towers control particulate and gaseous emissions, but are unsuitable for eliminating fine particulate matter. The venturi scrubber consists of a vessel containing a converging and diverging cross-sectional area. See Figure 1. Liquid is sprayed upstream of the zone referred to as the throat. The throat has minimal cross-sectional areas, which results in maximum gas velocity. The high velocity in the throat atomizes liquid droplets, which, in turn, impact particulate matter. For high collection efficiencies, venturi scrubbers require velocities in the throat in the range of 10,000 to 40,000 feet per minute. Overall performance of a venturi scrubber is related to the size distribution of particulate matter. Efficiencies are high for particles greater than 1 micrometer diameter, but performance drops for smaller particles. Unfortunately, small particle size distribution is typical for hospital incinerators due to the condensation of partially combusted organic compounds and metallic vapors. With venturi scrubbers, particulate Figure 1. Performance efficiencies for venturi scrubbers drop for particles smaller than 1 micrometer. Figure 2. A packed-bed wet scrubber uses absorption as the main method of collecting acid gases. OCTOBER 1991 POLLUTION ENGINEERING 69
4 70 POLLUTION ENGINEERING OCTOBER matter collection efficiency increases as the static pressure drop increases. Pressure drop defines the total amount of energy used in the scrubber to accelerate the gas stream and atomize scrubbing liquid into droplets. Packed-bed scrubbers are used primarily for acid gas removal. See Figure 2. Such scrubbers are not effective as stand-alone systems for tine particulate. Absorption is the main means of collecting acid gases in packed-bed scrubbers and is affected by the extensive liquid surface contacted by the gas stream as liquid passes over packing material. Packing material comes in a variety of shapes in diameters from 0.5 inches to 3 inches. Frequently, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used with water to neutralize absorbed acid gases. HCl and SO2 collected in the scrubber react with the NaOH to produce sodium chloride (NaCl) and sodium sulfite (Na2S07) in an aqueous solution. One major problem with packed-bed scrubbers is the accumulation of solids. Dissolved and suspended solids must be monitored and regulated through blowdown to prevent maintenance problems. Spray towers are relatively simple in design and consist of an empty vessel with an array of liquid spraying nozzles. See Figure 3. Such scrubbers normally incorporate counter-current flow to maximize efficiency. Generally, the smaller the droplets formed by the spray nozzles the higher the collection efficiency for gaseous compounds and particulate matter. Gas velocity must not be too high, however. High velocities will result in transport of liquid droplets and will reduce collection efficiency. Exhaust velocities for spray dryers should normally be from 1 to 4 feet per second. Spray dryers are low-energy scrubbers compared to venturi systems, and pressure drops across such units are generally less than 1 inch of water. The collection efficiencies for spray dryers are satisfactory for particle diameters greater than 10 micrometers. Dry scrubbers Dry scrubbing is a relatively new control technology for medical waste incinerators. Dry scrubbers use absorption to remove hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide and other acid gases. An alkaline sorbent is used to react with and, in turn, neutralize the acid gas. There are two varieties of dry scrubbing systems:
5 spray dryer absorbers and dry injection absorption systems. In spray dryer absorbers, the alkaline reagent, usually lime, is prepared in a slurry consisting of 5 to 20 by weight solids. The slurry is atomized into a large absorber vessel with a gas residence time of 6 to 20 seconds. Slurry droplets must evaporate prior to exiting the absorber with the gas stream. Conversely, drying too rapidly can reduce the eficiency of acid gas removal. To optimize performance, spray dry absorbers are normally operated with exit gas temperatures 90" to 180 F above the saturation temperature. For particulate control, these systems are normally followed by a fabric filtration system. Dry injection absorption systems use a dry reagent, normally calcium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide, to neutralize acid gases. The sorbent is normally transported to the scrubber by a pneumatic conveyor which assists in fluidizing the material. The alkaline sorbent is injected under pressure countercurrent into the gas stream. Alternatively, the sorbent may be injected directly into a reaction chamber. After neutralization occurs, the gas stream containing the entrained sorbent is directed to a particulate control device, usually a fabric filter, which allows for further acid gas neutralization on the filter cake. Fabric filters Fabric filtration systems are used exclusively for particulate emissions control. A fabric filter, sometimes referred to as a baghouse, is a collection of bags constructed of a fabric material and hung inside a housing. See Figure 4. Exhaust gases are drawn into the housing, pass through the bags, and are discharged to an exit stack. Particulate matter is retained on the fabric material while clean gases pass through. Particulate matter is removed by either mechanical movement or pneumatic means and collected for disposal in a hopper below the structure. The design criteria for a baghouse are the air-to-cloth ratio, bag material, operating temperature, chemical degradation problems and cost. Air-to-cloth ratio is a measure of the flow rate of gas through a fabric filter to the area of the bags. Typical air-to-cloth ratios for waste combusters range from 5 to 10 acfm/ft3 of bag area. Filter material should be selected based on abrasiveness of the gas stream, operating temperature requirements, chemical degradation problems and cost. Operating temperature for a fabric filter used on a medical waste incinerator is of critical importance. Exhaust gases from such incinerators contain acid gases so the entire system should be maintained at temperatures in excess of the acid dewpoint. The boiling point of HCl is 230"F, so gas temperatures should be kept sufficiently higher to prevent condensation and subsequent corrosion. Gas stream temperatures should not exceed the thermal exposure limits of filtration material. Pressure drops in fabric filters should be monitored frequently and recorded. Pressure drops below the minimum indicate leaks have developed or excessive cleaning has removed the beneficial base filter cake. Both conditions reduce performance. Excessive pressure drop is the result of the blinding of the Figure 4. A pulse jet baghouse is a fabric filtration system used for particulate emissions control. bags by potential moisture condensation or excessive cake buildup. This situation produces reduced system air flows and potential positive pressure in the combustion chambers. Robert P. Newman, PE, is manager of air programs for EA Engineering, Science and Technology, Hunt Valley, Md. Reader Interest Review Please circle the appropriate number on the Reader Service Card to indicate your level of interest in this article. High 459 Medium 460 Low 461 OCTOBER 1991 POLLUTION ENGINEERING 71
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