Nutrient Cycling 1: The nitrogen cycle
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1 Nutrient Cycling 1: The nitrogen cycle I. Introduction A. Changes to the global N cycle (Ch. 15) 1. Global pools and fluxes 2. Changes 3. Consequences B. Overview of the ecosystem N cycle (Ch. 9) 1. Major pools and fluxes 2. Main points II. Controls on N cycle fluxes in soils (Ch. 9) A. Inputs 1. N fixation 2. N deposition B. Internal cycling 1. Mineralization/immobilization 2. Nitrification C. Outputs 1. Gaseous losses (esp. denitrification) 2. Leaching III. Plant uptake and loss (Ch. 8) I. Intro to the Nitrogen Cycle Productivity of many ecosystems (managed & unmanaged) is limited by nitrogen availability: terrestrial temperate, boreal, arctic aquatic open oceans A. Global Pools: - most in the atmosphere, but not biologically available - reactive N in atmosphere: trace gases - lots in sediments and rocks, but not available - inorganic N in ocean is next largest - organic pools in plants and soils follow that 15.4 Pools in Tg = g Fluxes in Tg yr -1 Powerpoint modified from Harte & Hungate ( and Chapin ( Fluxes: several important biosphere-atmosphere N exchanges - biological: fixation, denitrification, nitrification - abiotic: industrial fixation, lightning fixation, fossil fuel and biomass burning, deposition Biological cycling within systems greatly outweighs inputs/outputs (i.e., N cycle is much more closed than the C cycle) B. Human-mediated fluxes in the global N cycle now exceed natural (pre-industrial) fluxes 15.4 Pools in Tg Fluxes in Tg yr Pools in Tg Fluxes in Tg yr
2 How much N is added in agriculture? Cotton Kg/ha Iowa corn Kg/ha Taiwan rice: 270 Kg/ha C. Consequences Eutrophication Species changes/losses Atmospherically active trace gases Consequences Eutrophication Species changes/losses Atmospherically active trace gases N fert increasing prod. N fert increasing dominance, decreasing diversity Tilman 1987 Consequences Eutrophication Species changes/losses Atmospherically active trace gases NO + NO 2 (NO x ): fossil fuel combustion NO (highly reactive) smog, tropospheric O 3 formation Acid rain (NO 2 + OH - HNO 3 ) N 2 O: increased fertilizer application denitrification Potent greenhouse gas (200x more effective than CO 2, 6% of total forcing) Chemically inert in troposphere, but catalyzes destruction of O 3 in stratosphere NH 3 Consequences Eutrophication Species changes/losses Atmospherically active trace gases NH 3 : domestic animals, ag fields (fert), biomass burning Atmospherically active aerosols, air pollution Deposition, N availability downwind Consequences N deposition increased growth (C sequestration) to a point. N saturation: availability exceeds demand Associated with decreases in forest productivity, potentially due to indirect effects such as acidification, altered plant cold tolerance N saturation N losses opening of the N cycle
3 B. Overview of Ecosystem N cycle (Ch. 9) 1. Major pools & fluxes 2. Main Points 1. Inputs~outputs 2. Open (C) vs. closed (N) 3. Plant needs met by internal recycling 4. Available soil pools are small relative to organic pools. 5. Microbes rule bg II. Controls on N cycle fluxes in soil A. N Inputs 1. Biological N fixation 2. Atmospheric N deposition 3. Mineral weathering? 1. Biological N Fixation a. What is it? Conversion of atmospheric N 2 to NH 4 + (actually, amino acids) Under natural conditions, nitrogen fixation is the main pathway by which new, available nitrogen enters terrestrial ecosystems 9.2 Nitrogen fixation b. Who does it? Carried out by bacteria Symbiotic N fixation (e.g., legumes, alder) Heterotrophic N fixation (rhizosphere and other carbonrich environments) Phototrophs (bluegreen algae) The characteristics of nitrogenase, the enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of N 2 to NH 4+, dictate much of the biology of nitrogen fixation High-energy requirement (N triple bond) Requires abundant energy and P for ATP Inhibited by O 2 Requires cofactors (e.g., Mo, Fe, S) Types of N-fixers There s no such thing as a N-fixing plant Symbiotic N-fixers High rates of fixation (5-20+ g-n m -2 y -1 ) with plants supplying the C (and the plant receiving N) Protection from O 2 via leghemoglobin (legumes) Microbial symbiont resides in root nodules Bacteria (Rhizobia) Legumes (Lupinus, Robinia) Actinomycetes (Frankia) - Alnus, Ceanothus (woody non-legumes) N-fixation rates reduced in presence of high N availability in the soil Types of N fixers Associative N fixers Occur in rhizosphere of plants (non-nodulated); moderate rates with C supply from plant root turnover and exudates (1-5 g-n m -2 y -1 ) Reduced [O 2 ] by rapid respiration from plant roots Azotobacter, Bacillus 3
4 Types of N fixers Free-living N fixers Heterotrophic bacteria that get organic C from environment and where N is limiting (e.g., decaying logs) Rates low due to low C supply and lack of O 2 protection ( g-n m -2 y -1 ) Also, cyanobacteria (free-living photo-autotrophs); symbiotic lichens (cyanobacteria with fungi offering physical protection) C. When/where does it happen? N-fixing species are common in early succession Red alder in secondary succession following clearcutting near Lake Whatcom - Lichens early in primary succession following deglaciation in Alaska. - Alder at later stages. Photo: D. Hooper Photo: D. Hooper Alder and the other woody hosts of Frankia are typical pioneer species that invade nutrient-poor soils. These plants probably benefit from the nitrogenfixing association, while supplying the bacterial symbiont with photosynthetic products. d. Paradox of N limitation Nitrogen is the element that most frequently limits terrestrial NPP N 2 is the most abundant component of the atmosphere Why doesn t nitrogen fixation occur almost everywhere? Why don t N fixers have competitive advantage until N becomes nonlimiting? Environmental limitations to N fixation Energy availability in closed-canopy ecosystems N-fixers seldom light-limited in wellmixed aquatic ecosystems (e.g., lakes) Nutrient limitation (e.g., P, Mo, Fe, S) These elements may be the ultimate controls over N supply and NPP Grazing N fixers often preferred forage 4
5 A. Inputs 2. Nitrogen Deposition Wet deposition: dissolved in precipitation Dry deposition: dust or aerosols by sedimentation (vertical) or impaction (horizontal) Cloud water: water droplets to plant surfaces immersed in fog; only important in coastal and mountainous areas Wet deposition typically scales with precipitation. Dry deposition can be significant even in humid climates. Dry deposition a greater proportion of total deposition in more arid climates (Pawnee, CO) Deposition depends on upwind sources Adirondacks Appalachians N species in deposition depends on type of source 3. Rock weathering as a source of N? Some sedimentary rocks contain substantial amounts of N with high rates of N release (up to 2 g-n m -2 y -1 ); however, most rocks contain little N. B. Internal Cycling of Nitrogen In natural ecosystems, most N taken up by plants becomes available through decomposition of organic matter Over 90% of soil nitrogen is organically bound in detritus in a form unavailable to organisms The soil microflora secrete extracellular enzymes (exoenzymes) such as proteases, ribonucleases, and chitinases to break down large polymers into water-soluble units such as amino acids and nucleotides that can be absorbed 5
6 The pools Plant biomass SOM (solid; including litter) Microbial biomass DON (a variable portion plant available ) NH 4 + (plant available) NO 3- (plant available) The processes: (Gross) N mineralization (Gross) N immobilization (Gross) autotrophic nitrification N uptake (and assimilation) by plants Internal Cycling of Nitrogen 9.2 Net Ain t Gross Net rates of N transformations (mineralization and nitrification) Net N mineralization = Δ (NH 4+ +NO 3- pools) = gross N mineralization-gross N immobilization Net Ain t Gross Similarly Net nitrification = Δ NO 3- pool = gross nitrification gross NO 3 - immobilization 1. Mineralization/immobilization -Mineralization is closely linked to decomposition. -Plant functional types: effects via litter quality influence on both breakdown of plant material and immob by microbes. -Climate affects mineralization via decomposition (microbial activity). -Species effects can be much greater than differences in climate. Critical litter C:N for net N min. (box 9.1) Microbial C:N ~10:1 Microbial growth efficiency ~40% So, for 100 units C, 40 units mic biomass, 60 units respired. For mic C:N of 10:1, need 4 units of N per 40 units C. So substrate needs C:N of 100:4 (i.e., 25:1) for net N mineralization. 2. Nitrification a. Why is Nitrification Important? Nitrate is more mobile than ammonium, so more readily leached from soil Substrate for denitrification (N loss as a gas) Generates acidity if nitrate is lost from soil Loss of nitrate results in loss of base cations 9.3 6
7 2.b. Controls on Nitrification NH O 2 NO 3- +2H + + H 2 O Two-step process conducted by chemoautotrophic bacteria: First step conducted by Nitrosomonas (other Nitroso-), NH 4+ NO 2-, ammonia mono-oxygenase, need O 2 Second step conducted by Nitrobacter, NO 2- NO 3 - Controls: NH 4 + O 2 Slow growth of nitrifiers Nearly all nitrogen that is mineralized in these systems is nitrified on a net basis. -In contrast, net nitrification is frequently less than 25% of net mineralization in temperate coniferous forests. - Semi-arid forests tend to show more net nitrification relative to net N mineralization The relationship between net nitrogen mineralization and net nitrification (μg nitrogen g-1 of dry soil for a 10-day incubation) across a range of tropical forest ecosystems (Vitousek and Matson 1984) Substrate limitation is common. - Nitrifiers are obligate aerobes. C. N outputs 1. Gaseous losses Ammonia gas (pk = 8.2, NH 4+ NH 3 + H + ) Fire Oxides of N (NO, N 2 O, N 2 ) NO and N 2 O from autotrophic nitrification NO, N 2 O, N 2 from denitrification Most denitrification conducted by heterotrophic bacteria (many are facultative anaerobes that use NO 3- as a terminal e - acceptor in the absence of O 2 ) Controls: NO 3-, C availability, O 2, - Nitrification and denitrification occur under different conditions. - Gaseous losses for both follow the hole-in-the-pipe model. - H-in-the-P depends on rate of flux and percent of losses High nitrate concentration, much labile C, and lack of oxygen together lead to high denit. rates
8 Denitrification where? Very important in wetlands, riparian areas. Spatially very patchy in well-drained soils. Erosional losses Solution losses NO 3- >> DON >NH 4 + C. N outputs 2. Leaching Greatest when water flux is high and biological demand for N is low (e.g., after snowmelt!) - Leaching losses of nitrate and cations decrease with forest regrowth at Hubbard Brook. -Plant and microbial demand Leaching increases when plant and microbial demand are exceeded (e.g., N saturation). Fig. 9.9 Consequences of Mississippi River N runoff: The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone Summary: small big Controls on mineralization (C quality, AET) are similar to those for decomposition, and this is the major source of plant nutrients for natural ecosystems. Humans are influencing N inputs to ecosystems: N fixation, N deposition. Higher N availability greater plant growth, until demand saturates. Microbes compete with plants for available N. Presence of substrate (NH + 4 ) is a major controller of nitrification; nitrate is much more susceptible to loss than ammonium. Losses of N cause Nitrate and nitrite pollution in groundwater (toxicity) Chemically active N species (NO x ) in atmosphere Radiatively active N species (N 2 O) in atmosphere Increased output to aquatic ecosystems (eutrophication)
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