Water Quality - Condensed Version 1999

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1 11.0 DISINFECTION refers to operations in water treatment that kills or renders harmless pathogenic microorganisms but does not refer to sterilization. sterilization; the complete destruction of all living matter is usually not the objective of disinfection Figure 1: Water Disinfection (Peavy, Rowe and Tchobanoglous, 1985) 11.1 Characteristics of Disinfectants destroys pathogens non-toxic to human beings and domestic animals safe and easy to store, transport and dispense reasonable cost easy to analyze in water reasonable residual protection does not sterilize 359-Stu_99H.wpd H-1

2 Important to note that other treatment operations are effective in reducing pathogens coagulation and filtration remove 90% of bacteria and viruses excess-lime softening is good for disinfection However, to meet guidelines, and provide protection from regrowth, disinfection is required Good disinfectant should have a fast kill rate and be persistent enough to prevent regrowth in the distribution system Rate of kill is a first order reaction: (1) (2) (3) (4) where k = kill rate N o = starting number or organisms N t = remaining organisms m = empirical constant usually 1 Note: Eq. 4 indicates that complete disinfection is not possible as the number of organisms will asymptotically approach zero k is determined experimentally and is a function of: # disinfectant # temperature # concentration of disinfectant # growth conditions of organisms # ph # characteristics of water 359-Stu_99H.wpd H-2

3 Factors affecting effective disinfection include turbidity and resistant organisms turbidity producing colloids offer sanctuary to organisms, shielding them from disinfectant particulate matter may adsorb disinfectant viruses and cysts are more resistant to disinfectants than bacteria additional contact time and exposure are required Disinfectants include: boiling is probably the safest but also the most expensive chemical agents such as the halogen group ozone chlorine dioxide (ClO 2 ) Note: silver irradiation with gamma rays or ultraviolet light (2000 to 3000 angstrums) sonification electrocution other physical means In North America, disinfection and chlorination have become synonymous Lethality of Different Disinfectants (pg 266 of ontgomery, 1985) Disinfectant E. Coli Polio 1 Entamoeba histolytica Cysts O HOCl ClO OCl NHCl NH 2 Cl % ph 7 and Temp of 20 C NHCL 2 - dichloramine; NH 2 Cl - monochloramine 359-Stu_99H.wpd H-3

4 11.2 Chlorination The primary objectives of chlorination are as follows: disinfection, taste and odour control of the finished water as it leaves the plant taste and odour control in the distribution system prevention of algae growth and other microorganisms that might interfere with coagulation and flocculation elimination of slime growths and mud balls in filter media and the prevention of possible build-up of anaerobic bacteria in the filter media destruction of hydrogen sulfide and control of sulfurous taste and odor in finished water removal of iron and manganese organic colour bleaching For chlorine, typical equation to relate residual concentration (HOCl) to kill (99%) is: C n t = K where K n C t = constant = constant " if equal to 1, contact time and conc. of equal importance " when n>1, contact time of more importance = concentration, mg/l = contact time in min Note: ust be careful with n as in the typical form, it does not reflect slope of contact time vs concentration. Example 13.1 in text made this mistake. Derived from: t = K C n or log(t) = n log(c) + log(k) where, slope is negative as shown in Figure 2 (Reynolds and Richards, 1995). Therefore, in text, equation should be C t= Stu_99H.wpd H-4

5 Factors Figure 2: Time - Concentration Profile for Chlorine contact time is very important up to 50 mg/l can be ingested kills most viruses at low concentrations chlorine kills microorganisms by penetrating the cell and reacting with the enzymes and protoplasm at higher concentrations, oxidation of the cell wall occurs and the organism is destroyed being a strong oxidant, chlorine will react with almost any material that is in a reduced state Chlorine can be used as: free chlorine (Cl 2 gas) Cl 2 + H 2 O -----> H + + HOCl # chlorine gas is the preferred species for chlorination, but it has difficulties # gas is liquified at five to ten atmospheres and shipped in steel cylinders # available as 99.8 % Cl 2 # solubility up to about 700 mg/l, good for super chlorination hypochlorites # ionized form # more expensive than chlorine gas but much easier and safer to handle # practical problem is in dissolving the hypochlorite 359-Stu_99H.wpd H-5

6 Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and the hypochlorite ion (OCl) are related: HOCl <=====> H + + OCl - vary with temperature and ph dependent hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is more effective than the hypochlorite ion (OCl - ) by two orders of magnitude, but for safety reasons the hypochlorites are winning out, especially in densely populated cities sum of HOCl and OCl - is the free residual chlorine hypochlorite also reacts with ammonia to form chloramines are persistent and provide protection in the distribution system HOCl + NH 3 <====> NH 2 Cl(monochloramine) + H 2 O HOCl + NH 2 Cl <====> NHCl 2 (dichloramine) + H 2 O HOCl + NHCl <====> NCl 3 (nitrogen trichloride) + H 2 O reactions are dependent on several factors, most importantly ph and temperature since combined residuals are less effective as a disinfectant, concentration of 2 to 3 mg/l with contact time exceeding 30 min is required chloramines are persistent and provide continued protection against regrowth in the distribution system effective against bacteria but not so effective against viruses chlorine gas, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion remaining after demand is the free chlorine residual chloramines and other reactive chlorine forms after demand are combined chlorine residuals free are faster acting and have greater disinfecting capacity than combine residuals, especially for viruses Breakpoint Curve (Figure 3) curve shows that an increase in chlorine dosage results in an equivalent increase in residual up to the molar ratio of chlorine to ammonia nitrogen of 1:1 359-Stu_99H.wpd H-6

7 Figure 3: Breakpoint Curve 359-Stu_99H.wpd H-7

8 Health Canada Advisory/Controversy (Nov 1998) 14 to 16% of bladder cancers caused by chlorination by-products (THs) THs should thus be minimized reduced (current limit at 100 g/l) # 99 % of Ontario communities have THs below 50 g/l experts state that chlorination cannot stop as diseases would increase dramatically Chlorine Disinfection Example Batch chlorination studies were done on water from the Grand River to determine the governing Ct relationship. For 99.9 % kill of G. lamblia, it was determined that C 0.86 t = 83; with ph = 7; T = 15 C and free residual 2 mg/l. (Note: for every condition, Ct will change) Design a contact chamber (type, dosage and contact time) and determine the amount of Cl 2 required and the cost if Cl 2 is $0.05 per kg. Given: (1) chlorine 0.1 h -1 ; (2) 30% of Cl2 converted to HOCl; (3) Q = 0.2 m 3 /s; (4) assume all desired free residual is HOCl 359-Stu_99H.wpd H-8

9 11.3 Ozonation ozone, the allotropic from of oxygen is the most powerful oxidant used in water treatment the oxidant is the oxygen atom which results in an environmentally acceptable compound; i.e. no THs are produced used extensively in Europe up till now not popular in North America because raw water quality was extremely high excellent for taste and odour control ideal when water contains large amounts of precursors produces a high energy oxidation where the bacteria cells literally explode must be produced on site and is expensive produced by passing dry air between oppositely charge plates under high voltage (6,000 to 30,000 V) 3O > 2O 3 solubility at mg/l, with a K L a of 0.25 to 0.45 min -1 naturally unstable in water and readily decomposes in water contact time of minutes at 0.5 to 1.0 mg/l sufficient for most pathogens typical Ct=2.9 to 0.48 for 99 % kill slowly gaining acceptance in wastewater applications 11.4 Chlorine Dioxide ClO 2 has many of the same properties as ozone strong oxidant which neither forms chloroforms or chloramines effective in taste and odour control, iron and manganese removal highly soluble but does not react with water contact with the atmospheres results in loss of ClO 2 as it decomposed by ultraviolet irradiation ClO 2 residual is longer lasting than HOCl, but possible reduction to chlorate, substance toxic to humans, makes it questionable for potable water typical Ct = 63 to 11 for 99.9 % kill 359-Stu_99H.wpd H-9

10 11.5 UV Irradiation irradiation with ultraviolet light is a promising method provides no residual can kill both bacteria and viruses, but not effective against Giardia cysts most effective band is 2000 to 3000 A (angstrums) [5 to 400 nm) usually generated with low-pressure mercury vapour lamps power out put of 30 W/cm 2 over thin sheets of turbidity water free water works best, allowing UV to reach organism inactivation rate constants (k in m2/j) from Droste, 97 pg. 533) # E. Coli = # fecal strepococci = # viruses = # coliphages = # bacteriophages = turbidity of wastewater is inhibiting its use in wastewater, but advancements made such as self cleaning tubes from a cost perspective in $1000 per year for WW (WQI #2, 1009 pg 7) # 1 GD: 19.6 to to 206 # 10 GD: 153 to to 781 # 100 GD: 1132 to to 2826 UV Example Inactivation of bug follows a first order reaction: N & N o = respective bacteria counts k = inactivation coefficient (m 2 /J) E = average UV intensity (mw/cm 2 ) t = dose detention time (h) D = radiation dose (J/m 2 ) Design a UV system to kill 99,9 % E. Coli after 10,000 h given the following: Enew = 100 %; E 5000h = 82 %; E 10000h = 72 % k = m2/j for E. Coli t = 40 s 359-Stu_99H.wpd H-10

11 12.0 FILTRATION practised in modern water-treatment plants as a polishing step to remove small flocs and precipitant flocs that were not removed by clarifiers filtration can also remove many pathogenic organisms, but should not be relied on as an equivalent unit to disinfection water begin filtered is passed through a stationary bed of granular media include activated carbon for organic substances solids removed by filters in various modes # upflow # biflow # pressure # vacuum most common in water is the downward flow where the height of the water column provides the driving force backwash operation also required when back pressure to high with chemical pretreatment, it is possible to removal almost all particles, including those of submicron size various filter media important properties of media are particle diameter, size distribution, and density 12.1 Slow Sand Filter first type of filters common in water treatment constructed of fine sand with an effective size of 0.2 mm (effective size is the size of opening that retains 10% of the medium) small size allowed mat of organisms to develop at water-sand interface; aided filtering high head loss results in low filtration rates; 0.12 to 0.32 m/h required large surface area were cleaned roughly once a month where the first few centimetres of sand and biological material were removed 359-Stu_99H.wpd H-11

12 12.2 Rapid Sand Filter developed to replace slow sand filters depth of sand varies from 0.6 to 0.75 m effective size ranges from 0.45 mm to 0.55 mm flow rate 2.5 m/h to 5.0 m/h cleaned frequently by backwashing (EXPLAIN) particles are selected so that large particles settle at top, while fine particle at bottom of filter Dual-media Filter similar to rapid except coal is part of filter effective size of each is selected to ensure to separate layers; coal on top of the sand coal depth varies from 0.3 to 0.6 m while the sand varies from 0.15 to 0.4 m 359-Stu_99H.wpd H-12

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